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Transcript
Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 Macromolecules of Life – Lecture 1 All Life is composed of Four Basic Molecules: I. Four Macromolecules Macromolecule Examples Monomers Jobs Store Genetic DNA; Nucleotides Information Nucleic Acids RNA Instructions to make proteins Building Enzymes; blocks of Proteins Rhodopsin; Amino cells. insulin acids Control chemical reactions Sucrose; Energy fructose; Monosource for Carbohydrates Glucose saccharide cells Stored energy. Build membranes Fats Bilayer Glycerol Stored energy VI. Macromolecule Summary 1 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 In the Table below: Write Yes or No CARBOHYDRATES FATS PROTEINS NUCLEIC ACIDS Monomers Carbon Present Hydrogen Present Oxygen Present Nitrogen Present 2(H):1(O) Carboxyl Group Amino Group Hydrocarbon tail Hexagon? Phosphate? ENZYMES 2 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 Enzymes are globular proteins. Also called biological catalysts (Catalysts speed up chemical reactions) How do they work? Enzymes function by binding to one or more of the reactants (substrate) in a reaction. The exact location on the enzyme where substrate binding takes place is called the active site of the enzyme. The shape of the active site just fits the shape of the substrate, somewhat like a lock fits a key. In this way only the correct substrate binds to the enzyme http://www.efhealing.com/images/enzymes.jpg Nutrient Cycle Part I 3 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 Obtaining Nutrients Lecture A. Autotrophs a. Are also called Producers b. Examples – plants, photosynthetic bacteria,etc c. Autrotrophs need – sunlight B. Heterotrophs a. Are also called Consumers b. Examples – rabbit, deer, etc. c. Heterotrophs need: food C. Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration a. Photosynthesis uses light energy to construct simple sugars. Occurs in the Chloroplast of plants!! + + i. The requirements for photosynthesis: Sunlight, Carbon Dioxide and water b. How do plants do this? photon of light strikes pigment (chlorophyll) causing electron in an atom to become excited. 4 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 The excited (energized) molecule can pass the energy to another molecule or release it in the form of light or heat. Thylakoids are disk-like structures stacked together in larger structures. Chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments are located in the membranes of the thylakoids. Light reactions - require light and take place in the thylakoid membrane. They convert ADP and NADP (electron carriers) into ATP and NADPH (energy released) needed to produce glucose in the dark reactions. Electrons are repeatedly gained or lost. 5 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 Chlorophyll in plants absorb light most efficiently faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20101/Bio%20101%20Lectures/Photosynthesis/photosyn.htm Dark reactions – no light needed. Uses the energy of ATP and NADPH to create sugar Notice how the equation for photosynthesis relates to the reactions shown in the diagram below. 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy ® C6H12O6 + 6O2 6 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 c. Cellular Respiration i. The process in the mitochondria where simple sugars are “burned” to produce energy (in the form of ATP). Occurs in PLANTS AND ANIMALS! ii. Simple formula for Cellular Respiration: ADP + PI + ATP (Energy) Enzymes + Mitochondria supply all of the usable energy for Plants (autotrophs) and Animals (heterotrophs) iii. 7 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 Nutrient Cycle Part II Leaf Structure Or How Autotrophs capture nutrients A. Leaf Diagram a. Cuticle – thick, waxy coat (cutin)that protects plant from loss of water and penetration by disease – part of the epidermis b. Epidermis – on the top and bottom layer of the leaf (skin), protects leaf tissue c. Palisade Layer – the dense upper layer that contains the chloroplasts d. Stomata – opening in the leaf (most in lower epidermis) 8 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 e. Spongy Layer – lower layer that contains more air space and chloroplasts f. Guard Cells – protect the openings called the stoma in the leaf and regulate the passage of water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide through the leaf g. Vein – through petiole (part attached to stem) i. Xylem – transports water, minerals and hormones ii. Phloem – transports sugar, oxygen and hormones h. Chloroplasts - to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water by using light energy. i. Chlorophyll – green pigment required to convert light energy into chemical energy 9 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 B. Remember, Autotrophs make their own organic nutrients (simple sugars). How do plants do this? a. Enzymes speed the necessary chemical reactions and give organisms the ability to control how much, where, and when these reactions occur. b. Glucose is coupled together into starch in the roots of plants for storage. c. The enzyme for this reaction is called: Sucrase d. The chemical reaction that occurs is a Dehydration Synthesis, draw the structures of two glucose molecules being joined to create a disaccharide (see Lecture page one): 10 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 Nutrient Cycle Part III Digestive System Lecture Or How Heterotrophs capture nutrients Label the Human Digestive System, we will use humans as a model for how Heterotrophs obtain nutrients 11 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 A. Function of Digestive Components Part Name Function A Salivary a. Secrete enzyme amylase Glands (breaks down carbs) b. cover food to produce bolus (Mucous lubricates food) B C D E F Tongue a. moves food side to side to be chewed and keeps between teeth b. moves bolus to back of throat c. closes off mouth when swallowing Trachea a. wind pipe b. protected by epiglottis during swallowing (covering) Esophagus Food to the stomach by peristalsis Liver a. produces and secretes bile which emulsifies fats b. detoxifies blood c. stores glycogen (animal form of starch) d. Reduces/neutralizes acids e. bile breaks up fats Gall Stores bile Bladder 12 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 G H I J K L Stomach a. churn/mix food b. digestion of proteins starts here c. Gastric juice is acidic (HCl) and contains pepsin (enzyme to digest proteins) d. Gastrin (hormone) stimulates to release of gastric juice e. vomiting-reverse peristalsis f. pyloric sphincter controls opening and end of stomach Bile Duct A duct or tube from gall bladder to small intestine Duodenum Most of the digestion begins here (proteins, fats and carbs) Pancreas a. produces powerful digestive enzymes b. Produces and secretes insulin – important in regulating blood sugar levels Pancreas A duct or tube from pancreas to Duct small intestine Small a. 20 – 30 feet long Intestine b. parts of sm. Intestine are: duodenum – listed above jejunum – has folds of skin called the brush border membrane. ileum – selective absorption of 13 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 O some nutrients. What remains is liquid stool c. Final digestion occurs here d. food is absorbed in simplest forms – amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol e. Villi – small finger like projects that contain vessels to absorb food Appendix Vestigial organ – “dead end” May at one time have aided in digestion of cellulose but has no function today Large a. Parts are: Cecum – large Intestine entrance controlled by a sphincter (colon) that protects the small intestine from the large intestines concentrated bacteria, Ascending colon – upwards, Transverse colon – across, descending colon – down, sigmoid colon – end b. reabsorbs water c. Some solid wastes are stored before they enter rectum Rectum Stores solid waste until full. P Anus M N Controlled by sphincter muscle by peristalsis. 14 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 B. Digestive Processes Process Explanation Takes food in – mouth Muscular contractions along digestive tractesophagus small and large intestine Absorption Taking of digested food into blood stream Ingestion Peristalsis Dot Color Blue Yellow Green Occurs in Sm. Intestine Storage Animal “starch” stored as Red glycogen in liver Elimination Solid waste eliminated Brown from large intestine Mechanical Physically chewing-mouth Orange Digestion Churning action-stomach Chemical Starts carbohydrate Purple Digestion breakdown in mouth Uses enzymes Starts protein breakdown in stomach Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are fully digested in Sm. Intestine 15 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 C. Types of Food (Think Macromolecules) Food Type % Diet Purpose Digestive End Product Fats <30% Store energy Glycer0l + 3 fatty acids Carbohydrates 55% Absorb Bitamins (A, D, E, K) Protect organs Energy source Absorption of all food types Proteins Glucose (other monosaccharides) Fiber- moves food through system >15% Growth, Amino maintenance/repair Acids cells Makes enzymes D. What happens to the Digestive End Products (listed above) Absorbed into blood and delivered to cells and organs a. For Fats used or stored b. For Carbohydrates used for energy or stored c. For Proteins used to rebuild/enzymes 16 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 d. Remember organisms are very efficiently adapted to providing the nutrients they need. The complex process of changing one type of macromolecule into another is very complex with any one able to change into the other, through many steps and much energy input. E. To speed Digestion organisms use chemicals and enzymes a. Acids i. Gastric acid in stomach ii. Contains HCl b.Bile i. Secreted by liver-stored in gall bladder ii. Emulsifies fats (dissolves-NOT digest) c. Enzymes – each enzyme (made of protein) is regulated, with a special “job” i. Jobs include ii. Operate by “Lock and Key” approach iii. Some examples iv. Hydrolysis – (Breaking down polysaccharides to create simple sugars) 17 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 F.A Few Specific Digestive Enzymes Enzyme Made Acts Purpose Here Here Amylase Mouth Mouth Breaks polysacs to disacs (digests carbs) pancreas Sm. Intestine Pepsin Gastric Stomach Starts digestion of protein glands into amino acids of stomach Rennin Stomach Stomach Coagulates (thickens) protein in milk Reduces fats to fatty acids Lipase Pancreas Sm. Intestine and glycerol (building blocks of fats) G. Enzymatic Digestion of food types (Macromolecules) a. Name the chemical process used by these enzymes to help digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins: HYDROLYSIS 18 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 b. Refer to diagrams of Macromolecules to fill in the chart below. Use circled numbers to indicate locations of hydrolysis. Enzyme Location where Number Digestive End Hydrolysis Occurs of H2O Product Used 2 Glucose Amylase Between C—O—C Pepsin Peptides bonds (A.A.) 7 Amino acids Rennin Between monosacs 5 Glucose Lipase Between fatty acids and glycerol 3 3 fatty acids and glycerol 19 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 H. Dietary Recommendations 2000 Cal Diet 2500 Cal Diet < 30% Total Fat Sat. Fat Poly Mono 65 g 20 g 22 g 23 g 80 g 25 g 27 g 28 g Cholesterol Salt Carbohydrates Dietary Fiber 300 mg 2400 mg 300 g 25 g 300 mg 2400 mg 375 g 03 g 20 Biology – Nutrient Cycles – Cowan/‘03 Nutrient Cycle Part IV Summary A. How do autotrophs and heterotrophs get the substances they need? Autotroph’s source Substance Heterotroph’s Source CO2 Minerals H2O Simple sugars O2 Energy (ATP) Amino Acids & Proteins Vitamins Starch Lipids (fats) Cellulose B. How do autotrophs and heterotrophs get the substances they need? Summary Statement: C. What happens to plants and animals if they don’t get the vitamins and minerals they need. See the mineral and vitamin charts and record what happens when the following organisms do not have adequate levels of each nutrient: h. Animals –Iron a. Plants – Nitrogen i. Animals –Chlorine b. Plants – Sulfur j. Animals - Vitamin B1 c. Plants – Iron k. Animals –Biotin d. Plants –Copper l. Animals – Vitamin D e. Plants - Calcium f. Animals – Potassium g. Animals –Calcium 21