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Lesson 11 Pronouns 11.1 Definition A pronoun replaces a noun, a noun phrase or another pronoun with or without a determiner. You use pronouns like he, which, none, you, etc., to refer back to a noun or to take the place of that noun to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive. 11.2 Types of Pronouns 11.2.1 Personal Pronouns 11.2.1.1 A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. Eg. person: 1st person (I/we), 2nd person (you) or 3rd person (he/she/it) number: singular (I/you/he/she/it) or plural (we/you/they) gender: male (he), female (she) or neuter (it) case: subject (I/you/we/he/she/they) or object (me/you/us/him/her/them) Here are the personal pronouns: number person singular plural gender personal pronouns subject object 1st male/female I me 2nd male/female you you 3rd male he him female she her neuter it it 1st male/female we us 2nd male/female you you 3rd male/female/neuter they them 1 11.2.1.2 When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples: This is our dog Ruffie. He's a border collie mix. The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage. My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife. Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia. For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this: If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal. If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal. If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal. 11.2.2 Possessive Pronouns 11.2.2.1 A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that indicates a possession relation. The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, and theirs. We use possessive pronouns depending on: number: singular (mine/yours/his/hers/its) or plural (ours/yours/theirs) person: 1st person (mine/ours), 2nd person (yours) or 3rd person (his/hers/its) gender: male (his), female (hers) Below are the possessive pronouns. number person gender (of "owner") possessive pronouns singular 1st male/female mine 2nd male/female yours 3rd male his female hers 2 plural 1st male/female ours 2nd male/female yours 3rd male/female/neuter theirs Examples*: Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture) I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers) I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key) My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers) All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay) John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport) John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes) Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car) Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos) Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books) I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (object = your garden) These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children) John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car) Notice that each possessive pronoun can: be subject or object refer to a singular or plural antecedent Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Eg. There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was. (Mok: Since whose is both a possessive pronoun and a possessive adjective/determiner, one can actually make use of either of its two parts of speech here. As a possessive pronoun, it is used as the example above. When one responds to Tara, one can 3 say, “The money was Mary’s,” or “The money was hers.” And as a possessive adjective, one can also respond to Tara by saying, “It was Mary’s money,” or “It was her money.” This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it? (Mok: Same as above.) * Adapted from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-possessive.htm. 11.2.3 Demonstrative Pronouns 11.2.3.1 A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a thing or things. The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. Their uses are: near in distance or time (this, these) far in distance or time (that, those) 11.2.3.2 Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives. Obviously, you use them differently. A demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun. (see 9.2.2.2) Eg. That smells. (demonstrative pronoun) That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun) 11.2.3.3 It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun. Eg. That sucks. (demonstrative pronoun) The car that hit him was red. (relative pronoun) 11.2.3.4 Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the person is identified. Eg. This is Paul speaking. Is that Janet? That sounds like Phil. 11.2.3.5 More examples of demonstrative pronouns: This sounds good. Have you seen this? These are lousy times. 4 Do you like these? That is lovely. Look at that! Those were the days! Can you see those? This is lighter than that. These are brighter than those. 11.2.4 Indefinite Pronouns 11.2.4.1 An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some. The most common indefinite pronouns are all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody, and someone. 11.2.4.2 Note that some indefinite pronouns also function as indefinite adjectives/determiners (see 9.2.1.3). Eg. That drink was good. Can I have another? (indefinite pronoun) I'd like another drink, please. (indefinite adjective) 11.2.4.3 Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in one context and plural in another. Eg.# All is forgiven. (the whole quantity of something as a unit) All have arrived. (the whole quantity of some things or people as individuals) Is any left? (no matter how much) Are any coming? (no matter how many) There is more over there. (a greater quantity of something) More are coming. (a greater number of people or things) Most is lost. (the majority of something) Most have refused. (nearly all of the people) They fixed the water so why is none coming out of the tap? (not any water) I invited five friends but none have come.** (no person or persons) Here is some. (an unspecified quantity of something) Some have arrived. (an unspecified number of people or things) 5 11.2.4.4 Notice that a singular indefinite pronoun must take a singular verb, eg. Each of the players has a doctor. 11.2.4.5 Note that any personal pronoun should agree (in number and gender with the indefinite pronoun. Eg. I met two girls. One has given me her phone number. Many have expressed their views. 11.2.4.6 More examples of indefinite pronouns:# Can anyone answer this question? The doctor needs to know if you have eaten anything in the last two hours. Each has his own thoughts. I don't mind. Either is good for me. Enough is enough. We can start the meeting because everybody has arrived. They have no house or possessions. They lost everything in the earthquake. Less is more. Little is known about his early life. Much has happened since we met. I keep telling Jack and Jill but neither believes me. I phoned many times but nobody answered. Clearly somebody murdered him. It was not suicide. If you don't know the answer it's best to say nothing. Listen! I just heard something! What could it be? All the students arrived but now one is missing. One was tall and the other was short. And you can see why. (an unidentified person, used informally) (Mok: ?) John likes coffee but not tea. I think both are good. Few have ever disobeyed him and lived. Fewer are smoking these days. Many have come already. I'm sure that others have tried before us. They all complained and several left the meeting. They say that vegetables are good for you. (Mok: ?) # Examples are from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-indefinite.htm. 6 11.2.5 Relative Pronouns 關係代名詞 11.2.5.1 A relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause in a sentence. It is called a “relative” pronoun because it “relates” to the word or phrase that it modifies. Eg. The person who phoned me last night is my friend. Here, who relates to and modifies “the person” by introducing the relative clause “(who) phoned me last night.” The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, and why. The compounds whoever, whomever, and whichever are also relative pronouns. Who (subject), whoever (subject), whom (object) and whomever (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which and whichever are for things. That can be used for people** and things and as subject and object. Where is for place; when for time; and why for explanation and reasons. 11.2.5.2 2 types of clauses: defining (restrictive) relative clause and non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses. In both types of clauses the relative pronoun can function as a subject, an object, or a possessive. 11.2.5.2.1 Relative pronouns in defining clauses 11.2.5.2.1.1 Defining relative clauses provide some essential information that explains the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctly and cannot be omitted. Defining clauses are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT separated by a comma from the main clause. The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses: Function in the People sentence Reference to Things / concepts Subject who, whoever, that which, that Object (that, who, whom, whomever) (which, whichever, that) Place Time Reason where when why 7 Possessive whose whose, of which 11.2.5.2.1.2 Examples: 11.2.5.2.1.2.1 Relative pronoun used as a subject: This is the house which / that had a great Christmas decoration. It took me a while to get used to people who / that eat pop-corn during the movie. The café which / that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed. (The relative pronoun that can only be used in defining clauses. It can also be substituted for who (referring to persons) or which (referring to things). That is often used in speech; who and which are more common in written English.) Whoever wants it can have it. 11.2.5.2.1.2.2 Relative pronoun used as an object: The library didn't have the book which / that I wanted. I didn't like the book which / that John gave me. (when referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position. So in these two examples, the relative pronoun which or that may be omitted.) The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher. She'll buy whichever is cheapest. Give these tickets to John, or Cathy, or whomever. Since when has she taught here? Where does he come from? The reason why they did it will never be known. 11.2.5.2.1.2.3 Relative pronoun used as a possessive: The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a suite in a hotel. The book whose author is now being shown in the news has become a bestseller. (Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun in English. It can be used with both people and things.) 11.2.5.2.2 Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses 8 11.2.5.2.2.1 Non-defining relative clauses (also known as non-restrictive, or parenthetical, clauses) provide some additional information which is not essential and may be omitted without affecting the contents of the sentence. All relative pronouns except “that” can be used in non-defining clauses; however, the pronouns may not be omitted. Non-defining clauses are separated by commas. The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in non-defining clauses: Reference to Function in the sentence People Things / concepts Subject who which Object who, whom which Possessive whose whose, of which 11.2.5.2.2.2 where when why Relative pronoun used as a subject: Relative pronoun used as an object: The house at the end of the street, which my grandfather built, needs renovating. 11.2.5.2.2.2.3 Reason The writer, who lives in this luxurious mansion, has just published his second novel. 11.2.5.2.2.2.2 Time Examples: 11.2.5.2.2.2.1 Place Relative pronoun used as a possessive: William Kellogg, whose name has become a famous breakfast foods brand-name, had some weird ideas about raising children. 11.2.6 Interrogative Pronouns Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. There are 4 main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which, as well as the possessive pronoun whose, used as the interrogative possessive pronoun, and the compounds whoever, whatever, whichever. 9 The table below sums up the use of interrogative pronouns: person subject object who whom thing what person/thing which person whose (possessive) Examples: Who told you? (subject) Whom did you tell? (object) What has happened? (subject) What do you want? (object) Which came first? (subject) Which will the teacher see first? (object) There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived? (subject) We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find? (object) Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing? (subject) Whatever did he say to make her cry like that? (object) They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose? (object) 11.2.7 Reflexive Pronouns 反身代名詞 We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in “-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural). In English, the 8 common reflective pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. Examples: I saw myself in the mirror. Why do you blame yourself? John sent himself a copy. 10 Mary bought herself a diamond ring. My dog hurt itself. We blame ourselves. Can you help yourselves? They cannot look after themselves. 11.2.8 Reciprocal Pronouns 相互代名詞 We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A. So we say: A and B are talking to each other. The action is “reciprocated.” John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I give you a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog. There are only 2 reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words: each other one another When we use these reciprocal pronouns: there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and they must be doing the same thing Examples: John and Mary love each other. Peter and David hate each other. The ten prisoners were all blaming one another. Both teams played hard against each other. We gave each other gifts. Why don't you believe each other? They can't see each other. The gangsters were fighting one another. The boats were bumping against each other in the storm. In general, we use each other more often than one another. Some people say that 11 we should use one another only for three or more people or things, and each other for two people or things. Adapted from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-reciprocal.htm 11.3 Pronouns and Determiners Pronouns and determiners are closely related, and some linguists think pronouns are actually determiners without a noun or a noun phrase. The following chart shows their relationships in English. Pronoun Determiner we we Chinese Possessive ours our freedom Demonstrative this Indefinite some some books Interrogative who which person Personal (1st / 2nd) this book 11.4 Pronoun Case There are only 3 pronoun cases. subjective case (they act as the subject) objective case (they act as the object) possessive case (they show possession of something else) The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case. subjective case objective case personal pronouns singular 1st plural possessive case I me mine 2nd you you yours 3rd he she it him her it his hers its 1st we us ours 12 2nd you you yours 3rd they them theirs who whom whose whoever whomever relative/interrogative pronouns which/that/what which/that/what indefinite pronouns everybody everybody everybody's 11.5 Some problems of pronouns and pronoun cases. 11.5.1 Mary and I or Mary and me? 1. Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me) 2. The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I) In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the subjective case “I.” In 2, Mary and me are objects, which is why the pronoun takes the objective case “me.” An easy way to check the correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say “I am delighted to be here” or “Me am delighted to be here”? Would you say “The letter was addressed to me” or “The letter was addressed to I”? 11.5.2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as: He is taller than I (am tall). (NOT He is taller than me.) This helps you as much as (it helps) me. (NOT This helps you as much as I.) She is as noisy as I (am). (NOT She is as noisy as me.) Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun. 13 11.5.3. In formal and semiformal writing. Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be. Formal: It is I. Informal: It is me. Use whom in the objective case. Formal: To whom am I talking? Informal: Who am I talking to? 11.5.4 Everybody, anybody, everyone, anyone, each, neither, either, neither of, either of, neither…nor, either…or, nobody, someone, a person. There are debates among linguists in the use of singular or plural verb, singular or plural pronoun after these indefinite pronouns / indefinite adjectives. Here is my position on some of these: 11.5.4.1 After neither and either you use a singular verb. Eg. Neither was selected for the job. I don't think either school is stronger than the other. 11.5.4.2 Neither of and either of are followed by a singular verb and a plural noun or pronoun. Neither of my parents lives with me. They live out of town. Either of them is correct. 11.5.4.3 Neither…nor, either…or are followed by a singular verb or a plural verb, depending on the subject (singular or plural) closest to the conjugated verb. Neither Helen nor Lily lives in Hong Kong. (second subject singular) Neither Frank nor my other friends care about their future. (second subject plural) Either Phil or Opera is coming. (second subject singular) Either Peter or the girls need to attend the seminar. (second subject plural) 11.5.4.4 Everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone are followed by a singular verb and a plural pronoun. Everybody loves Raymond, but Raymond doesn’t love them. 14 If everyone hands in their assignments on time, they will likely do well in the exam. If anybody is interested, we will go for the movie tonight. How can I know if anyone is stealing the money here? 11.5.5 For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this: If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal. If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal. If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal. 11.5.6. ** Some people say that “none” should always take a singular verb, even when talking about countable nouns (eg. five friends). They argue that “none” means “no one,” and “one” is obviously singular. They say that “I invited five friends but none has come” is correct and “I invited five friends but none have come” is incorrect. Historically and grammatically there is little to support this view. “None” has been used for hundreds of years with both a singular and a plural verb, according to the context and the emphasis required. 11.5.7. *** When referring to people, both that and who can be used. That may be used to refer to someone in general, and when a particular person is being spoken about, who is preferred. Some people claim that we cannot use that for people but must use who/whom; there is no good reason for such a claim. 15