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Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith James Stone © 1998 FARADAY’S FIELD The discovery of ‘electromagnetism’ in 1820 culminated from Hans Christian Oersted’s finding that a ‘magnetic circular current’ would be generated when passing electricity into a wire. The whole field theory quest spawned from this event. To determine from where, the ‘magnetic matter,’ ** of which Oersted’s ‘circular current’ was composed, became the main focus of the scientific world. The fact that Oersted’s magnetic current was a circular one, forming a sheath that surrounded the wire, caused a flurry of analytical debate. Maxwell's Equations are a composite; a reflection of all of the ‘accepted’ scientific work that culminated from Oersted’s discovery. In the second volume of Maxwell’s two volume treatises 1 that were written to outline these works, Maxwell states in article 645 that he has included Faraday’s experimental researches nos. 3266 and 3268 2 in his Equations. These researches reflect Faraday’s analogies with regard to magnetic lines of force, or the lines that can be seen in the iron sprinklings that surround a bar magnet, shown in the photo, below. LINES OF FORCE AS THEY APPEAR IN THE IRON SPRINKLINGS AROUND A BAR MAGNET Faraday: “By magnetic curves, I mean the lines of magnetic forces, however, modified by the juxtaposition of poles, which would be depicted by iron filings; or those to which a very small magnetic needle would form a tangent.” 3 _________________________________________________________ 1 “A Treatise on Electricity & Magnetism, Vol. 2,” by James Clerk Maxwell, Dover Publications, New York, N.Y. (1954). 2“ Michael Faraday,” L. Pearce Williams, pg. 510,. Da Capo Series, N. Y. (1965). Also, in his paper read before the Cambridge Philosophical Society on 10 Dec., 1855, ‘On Faraday’s Lines of Force,’ by James Clerk Maxwell. (1965). 3 Williams, L. Pearce, “Michael Faraday,” p. 200, Da Capo series, New York, N.Y. (1965). 1 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Faraday’s researches showed that the lines of force occur in two instances; as ‘electric lines of force,’ which are developed through electromagnetic induction, and as ‘magnetic lines of force,’ which are strains that appear within the medium. The strains are evidence of the forces that lie within a bar magnet. If the magnet is moved, electrical currents, and induction occurs, which causes the two phenomena to be ‘intimately’ related, but the magnetic forces that generate the electrical current were something completely different. It is for this reason that Faraday occupied himself with experimental researches that related to understanding the operations of these magnetic lines for close to half a century Maxwell credited William Thomson (later to be known as Lord Kelvin) for the final mathematization of the ‘magnetic lines of force.’ However, Thomson mathematized the central, circular portion of the magnetic lines, only; a proposition that Faraday would have opposed, inasmuch as the straight magnetic lines on the end, to Faraday, served as an integral part to the operation of the whole magnetic field that forms from these lines. In addition, Thomson portrayed these lines as ‘electrostatic,’ not magnetic, also a proposition that Faraday would have opposed. By portraying the ‘magnetic lines of force’ as, solely, electrostatic Thomson’s mathematization ultimately served to support the theories of André-Marie Ampère, whose theories Faraday had, fervently, opposed for close to fifty years. Faraday's disagreements regarding Ampère's analogies are well documented in L. Pearce Williams' book, “Michael Faraday,” 4 Thomson: “All the views which Faraday has brought forward and illustrated or demonstrated by experiment, lead to this method of establishing the mathematical theory, and, as far as the analysis is concerned, it would, in most general propositions, be even more simple, if possible, than that of Coulomb.” 5 _________________________________________________________ 4 Ibid 3 5 Ibid 3, p. 510, William Thomson, ‘On the Mathematical Theory of Electricity in Equilibrium,’ L. em E. Phil. Mag., 4 Ser., 8(1854), 53. The paper was first published in the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal for November 1845. 2 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 There are several aspects of the magnetic lines of force that are quite dissimilar to the electrostatic lines of force, 6 and it is for these reasons that Faraday never would have sanctioned using them in the same context that they were, eventually, used. The electrostatic lines of force, as Faraday had found, were always polar due to the polarization of ‘contiguous particles’ by which the electrostatic forces were transmitted; they always had ‘ends,’ or poles. Conversely, Faraday had found it impossible to separate, or establish that the magnetic lines of force had any definite ends, i.e., although the ends of a bar magnet exhibit the forces of attraction and repulsion, he had never found that these two phenomenal effects were due to polar ‘strain,’ or ‘pointing’ (3156). Faraday had meant that his research material 3265-3268, shown below, and used in the formulation of Maxwell’s Equations, to be an associative or comparative analogy between the behavior of electric lines of force and the behavior of the magnetic lines of force. For this reason, he includes an early experimental note (517), to begin the comparison, where he had obtained an ‘electrodynamic’ current, which to Faraday is a plain and simple ‘electric current,’ but to appeal to his colleagues, he had resorted to the ‘electrodynamic’ term. Since the two phenomena, electricity and magnetism, are convertible to one another, this comparative analysis shows the close relationship between the two. Because of their similarities, Faraday proposes that electrical and magnetic phenomena have an ‘intimate physical relation,’ and possibly a ‘oneness of condition,’ but he also emphasizes that they are ‘two powers, or forms of power’ [forces]. He never says that his ‘electrostatic,’ or ‘electric lines of force,’ are one and the same phenomena as the ‘magnetic lines of force.’ To Faraday, the central, circular lines in the magnetic lines of force have inductive potential, which he had found to be a characteristic of electrical phenomena, but the magnetic lines are a stationary property; pure force. The forces that emanate from the magnet, stress the medium into the lines that form. The magnetic lines are imposing force as a stress to the medium, then, and as Faraday stated many times, would not be evident if it were not for the ‘strain’ that they impose upon the medium in which they reside. A strain, in and of itself, is potentially electrical in that resistance can occur to resist the strain, and although the magnetic lines are ‘strains’ within the medium, until this ‘strain’ is put into motion, there is no generation of electrical current. Faraday had resolved himself to _________________________________________________________ 6 Ibid 3, pg. 444. 3 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 calling the central, circular current in the magnetic lines of force as ‘electrodynamic,’ because they demonstrated the same inductive potential as the electric lines of force, but until they were set into motion, they were purely magnetic force. By calling the central, circular magnetic lines ‘electrodynamic,’ the lines served to satisfy the Newtonian ‘particle’ view. The straight lines could serve to satisfy the ‘undulatory,’ or wave view. To Faraday, the magnetic lines of force were, potentially, wave and particle, but his many descriptions of their functioning over the years caused a general misunderstanding of what he had found them, experimentally, to be. Bracketed are my own comments, below: “I have elsewhere called the electric current, or line of electrodynamic force,...‘an axis of power having contrary forces exactly equal in amount in contrary directions’ (517). “... The line of magnetic force may be described in precisely the same terms; and these two axes of power, considered as right lines, [that] are perpendicular to each other; and this additional condition, which determines their mutual direction, that they are separated by a right line perpendicular to both (3265)......'whereas the lines of magnetic force tended to shorten themselves (3266). “...Electric currents in the same direction attracted one another, but similar magnetic axes of power or lines of force repel each other (3267) [he continues his analogy of the magnetic lines of force, by placing the potentially ‘electrically inductive’ field together with the surrounding straight lines, in order to show what happens when the magnetic lines are in motion]...they are contrasts which coincide when the position of the two axes of power at right angles to each other are considered...The tendency to elongate in the electric current [bending of the lines outward, the lines rarify in the central field], and the tendency to lateral separation of the magnetic lines of force which surround that current [the straight lines on both ends], are both tendencies in the same direction, though they seem like contrasts, when the two axes are considered out of their relation of mutual position; and this, with other considerations to be immediately referred to, probably points to the intimate physical relation, and it may be, to the oneness of condition of that which is apparently two powers or forms of power, electric and magnetic (3268).” 7 _________________________________________________________ 7 Ibid 3, p. 451 4 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Faraday’s reference to the longitudinal vibrations in his ‘magnetic lines of force,’ is a reference to the rarified lines throughout the central field. The straight lines are parallel to each other as they appear at both ends; they are at 90° or right angles to the direction of the central, circular field. These lines (the straight lines) were left out, completely, from Thomson’s mathematization. This occurred, even though, as his experimental researches indicate, Faraday had considered them important to the whole field of operation. In lieu of using Faraday’s analogies of the external ‘magnetic lines of force,’ or straight lines, Thomson had introduced Poisson’s mathematical theory of the distribution of magnetism and of magnetic attractions and repulsions. Thomson had used Wilhelm Weber's mathematical analogies (which were predicated on André Ampère's Electrodynamic Theory, where Weber had replaced Ampère's idea of fluids with electric current), enabling him to introduce Poisson's mathematical theory of magnetic distribution. Regarding Poisson's theory, Thomson stated, “These laws seem to represent in the most general manner the state of a body polarized by influence, and therefore, without adopting any particular mechanical hypothesis, we may make use of them to form a mathematical theory of electrical influence in dielectrics, the truth of which can only be established by a rigorous comparison of its results with experiment.” 8 Denìs Poisson’s theory of the distribution of magnetism and magnetic attractions and repulsions; however, were later eliminated from Maxwell’s [final] Equations. This left out magnetic theory, altogether, except as it occurred as an after-effect of ‘electrostatic’ action (the particle, or the central, circular portion of Faraday’s lines of force). These events caused a major flaw in all field theory that has been devised since, and carried forward to this day. _________________________________________________________ 8 Ibid 3, p. 464 5 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 FATAL ERRORS The only reason that Thomson, or Maxwell gave any notice to the lines of force, in general, was because they could see that the lines could serve to be utilized, mathematically, into an electrical particle. The magnetic lines of force, too, could be correlated to the circular current that had been obtained by Oersted. Faraday’s reputation would add credence to the finalized theorem, as well. Maxwell states in his two volume Treatises that it was Faraday’s ‘magnetic lines of force,’ that were mathematized, however, the fact is, the mathematization served only to show the central, circular portion, or what could, potentially, be the ‘electrodynamic’ field. Faraday’s experimental researches 32653267, shown above, causes the confusion, when he refers back to his researches in electricity (517), stating that “the electric current, or line[s] of electrodynamic force [is],...”an axis of power having contrary forces exactly equal in amount in contrary directions.” [and that] “... The line of magnetic force may be described in precisely the same terms...” The following experimental research performed by Faraday on electrical induction, is what should have been used in Maxwell’s Equations to show the behavior of an ‘electrostatic’ particle, and combined with Faraday’s true analogies regarding the magnetic lines of force, both the wave and the particle that culminates from the wave would have been shown: “As argument against the received theory of induction and in favour of that which I have ventured to put forth, I cannot see how the preceding results can be avoided. The effects are clearly inductive effects produced by electricity, not in currents but in its statical state, and this induction is exerted in lines of force [electric] which, though in many experiments they may be straight, are here curved more or less according to circumstances. I use the term line of inductive force merely as a temporary conventional mode of expressing the direction of the power in cases of induction; and in the experiments with the hemisphere (1224), it is curious to see how, when certain lines have terminated on the under surface and edge of the metal, those which were before lateral to them expand and open out from each other, some bending round and terminating their action on the upper surface of the hemisphere, and others meeting, as it were, above in their progress 6 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 outwards, uniting their forces to give an increased charge to the carrier ball, at an increased distance from the source of power, and influencing each other so as to cause a second flexure in the contrary direction from the first one. All this appears to me to prove that the whole action is one of contiguous particles, related to each other, not merely in the lines which they may be conceived to form through the dielectric, between the inductric and inducteous surfaces (1483), but in other lateral directions also. It is this which gives an effect spoken of, and enables induction to turn a corner (1304). The power, instead of being like that of gravity, which causes particles to act on each other through straight lines, whatever other particles may be between them, is more analogous to that of a series of magnetic needles, or to the condition of the particles considered as forming the whole of a straight or a curved magnet. So that in whatever way I view it, and with great suspicion of the influence of favourite notions over myself, I cannot perceive how the ordinary theory applied to explain induction can be a correct representation of that great natural principle of electrical action (1231). Thomson states that his mathematical representation of Faraday's lines of force [the central, circular lines] “showed curved lines of inductive action that could be used to establish a mathematical theory of electrostatic action.” 9 Faraday had found through his experimental researches in electricity that induction occurs along ‘curved’ lines. 10 There is repulsion occurring in the central, circular field lines, shown in the photo above, which causes them to ‘elongate,’ or rarify as they bend outward, and curve inward toward the ends. Like the increased distance from the source of power, and influencing electric lines of force, this gives them the ‘potential’ of induction, hence Faraday began to refer to them as ‘electrodynamic.’ The fact remains, however, that even though the central magnetic lines of force have electrical potential, until these lines are cut through motion, no current is generated; they remain purely magnetic in their stationary state. Through motion, they become electrical, and therefore, convert to an inductive, electrical state. The ‘elongated’ lines in the central, circular current are continuations of the _________________________________________________________ 9 Ibid 3, p. 176-178 10 Ibid 3 pgs. 296-298 7 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 straight inductive potential as they bend, lines at both ends of the bar magnet. They are the straight lines, however, repulsion in the central portion has caused their rarefaction; their bending outwards makes them more separated, or displaced (elongated is Faraday’s description), giving them their ‘electrodynamic,’ or curve inwards on the ends. The ‘magnetic lines of force,’ therefore, were shown in Maxwell’s Equations to be an electrically inductive particle (round or ‘curled’), without any external lines, or powering forces behind it. To Faraday, the straight magnetic lines were like ‘terminals,’ connected to the medium which gave them their power. The straight lines, in turn, transferred this power to the central, circular field. 8 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 FARADAY’S FIELD Faraday considered the central, circular portion of the lines of force to be what he refers to in the researches used in Maxwell’s Equations to behave ‘exactly’ the same as the electrical lines of force described in his experimental research 1231, shown above on electrical induction. When the lines are cut through motion, they behave exactly as the electric lines of force; they induct electricity into the central, circular field. The electrical ‘potential,’ therefore, lies within the central, circular portion of the magnetic lines of force, and the magnetic potential lies within the straight lines. The central, circular field is what Faraday refers to as the ‘lateral,’ transverse vibrations. When he states that the ‘fields’ are at right angles to one another, he means that they lie at 90° angles to one another. The idea of a ‘transverse wave’ had not, yet, been developed. So, Faraday’s meaning of ‘transverse’ in the central, circular portion is important. Faraday’s ‘transverse vibration’ became known and mathematized in the ‘adjective’ sense of the word; the impetus behind Maxwell’s Equations is: “1: acting, lying, or being across: set crosswise 2: made at right angles to the anterior-posterior axis of the body.” 11 The photo, below, gives the general idea of the electric and magnetic fields as they would be at right angles to one another, or lying across as two interspersed transverse waves that cancel, mathematically; electric and magnetic constantly at right angles to one another. _________________________________________________________ 11 Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Inc. (2004); http://www.m-w.com/ 9 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 As we all know, the electromagnetic wave function, evolved to lie cross-wise as a progressive transverse wave that emits and absorbs through peak and decline, shown in the photo, below: These depictions of wave function are not what Faraday meant. Faraday’s research material (1231) on ‘electric induction’ shows that he meant the word ‘transverse’ to be used in the form of a ‘noun,’ not as an ‘adjective. The definition when using the term as a noun is: “something (as a piece, section, or part) that is transverse. This is what the central, circular current is; a section or part of the lines of magnetic force that repel in the center, causing the lines to ‘traverse,’ or travel oppositely. To Faraday, a transverse wave is recoil that occurs through a pulsation generated throughout the central field, collecting along the surface of the whole sphere as a saturation current, or boundary layer. 12 In his research material on electrical induction, Faraday describes a ‘peak’ that is a ‘termination’ of the action on the upper surface of the hemisphere, or ball used in the experiment. The electrical energy at this ‘termination’ point traverses the field as a ‘second flexure’ that travels in ‘contrary’ or opposite direction from the first one. This is recoil in the opposite direction. _________________________________________________________ See Photo, below: ‘Evidence For A Bose-Einstein Condensate in Dilute Rb Gas by Absorption Image In A Quadrupole and Ioffe Configuration Trap,’ Chinese Phys. Lett., 799, Vol. 20, No. 6 (21 February 2003), Wang, Yu-Zhu, Zhou Shu-Yu, Long Quan, Zhou San-Yu, Fu Hai-Xiang; Sanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800. 12 10 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 The only difference between the electric lines of force and the magnetic lines of force is that the magnetic lines have to be cut through motion to generate electrical current. Then, the bulk of the pulse, or discharge generated, would occur at the surface of the circular field, as Faraday describes in his experimental research 1231 on electrical induction. Faraday at this point in his career had set the stage for this central, circular current to be a functioning, pulsating particle** with the straight lines functioning as terminals. The terminals would gain power from the medium to which they were connected, and in turn, drive the central, circular current. The central, circular current would discharge the power gained from the terminals along the surface of the circular current. All that was left for Faraday, now, to do was to figure out the energy ‘substance’ of which these ‘forces’ were made, and exhibiting themselves as straight lines. To Faraday at this point, there was no ‘aether’ per se; he had already dismissed it in his thesis, “Thoughts On Ray Vibrations,” stating that radiant matter would replace the aether hypothesis. He began experiments in terrestrial magnetism, therefore, in order to determine what ‘substance’ the medium was composed. This ‘substance,’ would also be the ‘magnetic force’ in which his particle would be immersed. _________________________________________________________ ** The phenomena of ‘balled lightening’ occur through the development of magnetic lines of force, which are refractive lines. As electrical current is increased, however, electrical induction increases, which increases magnetization. Increased magnetization coheres [attractive forces] the current into a solid formation of ‘light,’ which is coherent radiation. As the electric current is transformed into coherent radiation, the overall energy is in phase, and ‘like’ forces begin to repel, forming the circular current. The circle, or ‘ball’ formed is a combination of forces, electric and magnetic (repulsion and attraction; emission and absorption, respectively), the bulk of these functions occur along the surface, which is a boundary layer, or boundary charge that is ‘pulsed,’ due to emission and recoil (recoil is absorption). 11 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 The ultra-cold experiments, or Bose-Einstein Condensates, shown in detail later, are demonstrating Faraday’s findings, but this is getting too far ahead. To gain insight into Faraday’s complete view of the functioning of the straight lines, and their connection to the whole field, it is necessary to follow the steps that led him to his conclusions. Photo: ‘Evidence For A Bose-Einstein Condensate in Dilute Rb Gas by Absorption Image In A Quadrupole and Ioffe Configuration Trap,’ Chinese Phys. Lett., 799, Vol. 20, No. 6 (21 February 2003), Wang, Yu-Zhu, Zhou Shu-Yu, Long Quan, Zhou San-Yu, Fu Hai-Xiang; Sanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800. Photo below from: Davis, K.B., Mewes, M.O., Andrews, M.R., Van Druten, N.J., Durfee, D.S., Kurn, D.M., Ketterle, W. – 1995 Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 3969: Fig. 2 (color). Two-dimensional probe absorption images, after 6 ms time-of-flight, showing evidence of BEC. (a) is the velocity distribution of a cloud cooled just above the transition point, (b), just after the condensate appeared, and (c) after further evaporative cooling has left an almost pure condensate. (b) shows the difference between the isotropic thermal distribution and an elliptical core attributed to the expansion of a dense condensate. The width of the images is 870 m. Gravitational acceleration during the probe delay displaces the cloud by only 0.2 mm along the z axis. 12 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 MAGNETIC EFFECT If two magnets are placed together, end to end, where the forces come together; they either clamp shut, or they repel. However, there existed a paradox then, and now, where magnetic forces are concerned, which is that in keeping the exact same ends together, but turning one of the magnets a half turn, the magnets will now repel. Ampére’s explanation of this paradox, which is the one held today, is that the particles, and/or molecules within the magnets polarize such that they always cause the two opposite effects to occur, even when a magnet is broken in half, it will exhibit these two-force characteristics. Faraday’s view of the magnet was not so ‘black and white,’ as he had expressed in his experimental research (3156), shown previously. His discovery of diamagnetism, along with over forty years of research with regard to the magnetic lines of force, had caused him to have a different view. A view that was completely radical to most of the other scientists. Maxwell and Thomson were among a handful of scientists that took Faraday’s ideas regarding the ‘magnetic lines of force’ seriously. Faraday always attributed the ‘magnetic lines of force’ as an effect of force that could be seen to occur within the medium. The presence of the magnet and the forces within the magnet impede, or displace the medium into the resulting lines. If it were not for the medium, or whatever the medium consists of, the forces that these lines represent, which is strain, could not be seen or made evident. Since magnetic forces had been found to exist, innately, in all matter, to Faraday, these lines could explain all that exists, even space. A magnet only ‘attracts’ or ‘repels’ when another magnet, or a good conducting substance such as metal, is placed near it. This is why Faraday expressed a ‘caveat’ in experimental research 3156, shown above, to not “assume that pointing is always the direct effect of attractive and repulsive forces acting in couples...” Place plastic, and many other substances beside it and nothing happens. Turning the magnet, or ‘flipping’ it a half-turn, is in actuality what is occurring to produce the central current. The central, circular ‘lines of force’ are continuations of the straight lines; however, the straight lines are repelling in the center. They bend, or repel one another, because they are the same, or ‘like’ forces that are opposing one another (Faraday had, actually, said this in his exp. res. 3265-3268, but it was construed to mean that when placing two magnets together, their ‘like’ forces 13 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 repel, which is true as well). The central, circular lines are rarified lines that bend, or curve outwardly, inducting or terminating on the ends, confining the circle that they form. These lines are refractive; however, stationary. Repulsion of the straight lines, or ‘like’ forces, in the central field causes the circular current as the lines inverse, or displace, because they are repelling. The two fields emerge in the form of two half-currents that are ‘mirror images’ of one another (the lines that appear on either side of the length of the bar magnet in the center). These two half currents are not the opposite forces of attraction and repulsion, but two ‘like’ forces that form an inversed field. The central lines are a confined field that strains the medium into the circle formed. The two half-currents have the potential to work in opposition to one another (if they move from their stationary state), due to the inversion that has occurred. However, the magnetic lines, in general, i.e, the straight, as well as the central, circular current are attracted to one another, as Faraday was, actually, describing in his experimental researches 3265-3268. The mere fact that the lines of force ‘moved’ into the formation of the circle adds up to at least one (1), but until the lines are cut through motion, the lines remain ‘stationary’ and cancelled at one. In this state, the lines have refractive potential, however, they are non-motional, so they are a stationary wave that has the potential to become ‘electrodynamic’ through motion. This analogy can be used to explain an equilibrium state in a refractive medium, such as the Earth’s terrestrial medium; a state where particles exist (circular current); however, they remain, virtually, non-motional as gases in a state of equilibrium (steady state). As this state becomes more and more motional, refraction or displacement begins to dominate contributing to the radioactive decay processes that are occurring. The straight lines on either end of the magnet are, distinctly, different from the central, circular field; they are strains within the medium, but they are not simple attraction and repulsion (as Faraday kept telling them), as the ‘half-turn,’ or flip analysis indicates. The fact that the straight lines carry within them the potential to go either way, i.e., to become either an attractive force or a repelling force, tells the story; they are in a zero state, unless they are displaced! It was for this reason that Faraday expressed in exp. res. 3156, shown above, that pointing is not, necessarily, a direct effect of attraction or repulsion. This state of magnetization, it will be shown, carries the potential to exhibit both weak and strong force characteristics, depending on whether they are strained into an inversed field, or not. This is why Faraday searched for 14 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 a state of ‘no magnetic action in matter! A state of magnetism that is stationary, or non-motional would be a perfect state of magnetism...it would complete the force characteristics that a magnet exhibits! When the ends of the magnets clamp shut, the two magnets have attracted strongly, because their inherent force of zero encounters no opposition...the two magnets are super-conducting, because the zero effect has created a vacuum between them! The forces between the magnets, at first, seem to oppose the attraction that exists between them, but as they are brought closer together they clamp shut, strongly cohering to one another, as the attractive forces between them take over, unifying and zeroing out any resistances between them; they are in phase at zero, where their unified, or united forces are strongly coherent [attractive]. Although zero would appear to be a cancellation of force, due to the fact that all resistance is nil, the attractive forces between the magnets have taken over, cohering into one unified force that is zero. Zero resistance has increased magnetization between the two magnets, as well as having created a vacuum between them, and they speed toward one another, clamping shut. When the magnets repel, it is because their zero forces have been displaced into refractive, or rarified lines that repel due to their displacement. Impedance has caused the straight lines to displace into the central current, which is a series of ‘refractive,’ rarified lines. Although these lines form a stationary field, the field is not cancelled in the same sense, because the field that they form is one of repulsion. This is why the ‘flip’ enigma occurs at both, or either end, i.e., there is no real distinction until a magnetic object is brought near, and then the second magnet, or good conducting substance, either resists or coheres to the magnetization of the first magnet. The lines of force are the key toward understanding this phenomenon. These lines, as Faraday repeatedly emphasized, are not composed of particles that polarize; they constitute pure magnetic force, both weak and strong. The strong force being zero, where the forces between the magnets unite, and cohere, canceling any opposition. Any force, or change from this state causes opposition, or repulsion, which is ‘one,’ and beyond, if the ‘lines of force’ move, generating current when they are cut through motion. Remember, Faraday had found that magnetism could exist, independently, from electrical phenomena. These lines, not 15 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 only can exist in a vacuum, which he pointed out early on, they are a vacuum in their unstrained state; zero. As a vacuum state of matter, i.e., as zero, magnetization is in a perfect state: it is a strong, coherent, nonresistive force. The lines of force can only be seen as they impose strain upon the medium. When they are unstrained, they are merged together as a strong, coherent state of magnetization; they are in their zero state, where there is no opposition. The whole of this theorem will support these facts. Magnetic force is enigmatic! The behavior of ‘zero’ presents a paradox of, not equal but opposite forces,**but weak and strong forces; repulsion being the weak force and coherency or attraction, which is zero, being strong. Maxwell states in his Treatise, Vol. 2, Art. 376, shown above, that “The quantity which we have hitherto called the strength of a pole may be called a quantity of ‘magnetism,’ provided we attribute no properties to ‘magnetism’ except those observed in the poles of magnets…” The ‘poles’ of the magnet, carrying the ‘strength,’ or magnetic power, can be seen as the straight magnetic lines of force in the bar magnet; the lines left out of Thomson’s mathematization. Maxwell sealed the fate of these lines by ‘attributing’ them with ‘no properties.’ Since the poles are, supposedly, two very ‘opposite’ forces that cancel when they are added together, mathematically speaking, the poles were ‘zeroed out’ as any kind of magnetic force, or ‘strength’ and power. To the mathematicians, this was a cancellation of force [and power], which placed all of the power and energy into the electrodynamic portion. To Faraday, the ‘forces’ that the straight lines represented, whatever the straight lines were as force, they held within them a concentration of force that became the power behind the culmination and stimulation of the central, circular portion (electrostatic particle). This ‘strength,’ or power has the potential to ‘flip’ either way, to become either attractive or repulsive, or both. These straight magnetic lines of force are a state of no resistance, i.e., they are zero unless strained, which makes them a perfect diamagnetic. Perfect diamagnetism is a perfect state of magnetization: zero, an unstrained state of magnetization, and a nonpolar condition. When the straight lines repel, forming rarified lines and a central, circular current, the central field formed becomes a _________________________________________________________ **See page 66 in book, along with footnotes. 16 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 force that repels any other magnetic field brought near it, because it is an insulated field. The characteristics of straight lines and circles became very important later, in the discoveries of x-rays, gamma rays and cathode rays. These higher radiations constitute strong, coherent (attractive) forces. The behavior of hydrogen as a diamagnetic substance;*** it will be shown, is a high radiation and perfect state of magnetization that is a state of no-resistance; a non-electrical state of light that is a super-conducting state in the open medium of interstellar space that constitutes a vacuum. “It cannot be doubted that the magnetic forces act upon and affect the internal constitution of the diamagnetic...” (2226) “If the magnetic forces had made these bodies magnets, we could, by light, have examined a transparent magnet; and that would have been a real help to our investigation of the forces of matter. But it does not make them magnets..., and therefore the molecular condition of these bodies, when in the state described, must be specifically distinct from that of magnetized iron, or other such matter, and must be a new magnetic condition [diamagnetism]; and as the condition is a state of tension (manifested by its instantaneous return to the normal state when the magnetic induction is removed), so the force which the matter in this state possesses and its mode of action, must be to us a new magnetic force or mode of action of matter (2227). 17 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 CATHODE RAYS ELECTRONS. BECOME PARTICLES: After his exhaustive study of cathode rays (Röntgen had established that cathode rays produce x-rays) and their effects on gases, J. J. Thomson proposed the following, very important, analogy with regard to them: “Thus on this view we have in the cathode rays matter in a new state, a state in which the subdivision of matter is carried very much further than in the ordinary gaseous state: a state in which all matter--that is, matter derived from different sources such as hydrogen, oxygen, & c.-is of one and the same kind; this matter being the substance from which all the chemical elements are built up.” 13 In 1897, J. J. Thomson announced to the Royal Society that cathode rays were negatively charged particles. His conclusion was based on the results he had obtained through the measurement of the ratio of charge to mass for a single particle. He achieved this with a specially designed cathode ray tube, the precursor of the tube in a present-day TV set. The cathode was at the far narrow end of the tube, the anode a few centimeters away, with a small hole in its center. The rays went from the cathode to the anode, but a narrow beam continued through the hole in the anode to the glass at the other end of the tube, where their impact caused the glass to glow in a small central spot. Thomson also added inside the tube two parallel plates arranged so that the narrow beam of cathode rays went between them on its way to the end of the tube. He found that electrically charging these plates caused the beam to deflect, so the glowing spot moved from the center of the end of the tube. (This was different from Hertz' result. Possibly Hertz' externally applied field was shielded by space charge on or near the walls of the tube). Thomson also added magnets to give a uniform magnetic field in the region between the plates. By adjusting this magnetic field strength to cancel the deflection of the rays caused by the electric field, he was able to measure the speed of the rays: _________________________________________________________ 13 J. J. Thomson, Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (1897). [facsimile from Stephen Wright, Classical Scientific Papers, Physics (Mills and Boon, 1964).] http://maple.lemoyne.edu/faculty/giunta/thomson1897.html. 18 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 eE = evB By cancelling the magnetic field strength, the charge cancels as well, and the velocity or speed becomes the ratio of electric field strength as compared to magnetic field strength. Having determined the horizontal speed Thomson, then, deduced the charge to mass ratio by measuring the deflection in the electric field alone. ** Why cancel deflection and charge with the introduction of magnets, only to reintroduce deflection with an electrostatic force and a magnetic force? By reintroducing these outside ‘forces’ motion, of course, occurred. Deflection implemented electrical or resistive action; as the light was displaced, diffraction began to occur: Thomson: “As the cathode rays carry a charge of negative electricity, are deflected by an electrostatic force as if they were negatively electrified, and are acted on by a magnetic force in just the way in which this force would act on a negatively electrified body moving along the path of these rays, I can see no escape from the conclusion that they are charges of negative electricity carried by particles of matter. The question next arises, what are these particles? are they atoms, or molecules, or matter in a still finer state of subdivision? To throw some light on this point, I have made a series of measurements of the ratio of the mass of these particles to the charge carried by it.”14 The Remy, et. al. 15 experiment, shown later, exemplifies this fact; electrons occur when pressure is imposed upon this ‘dark’ state of light. Otherwise, in an evacuated tube, the light expands and stabilizes in its 'dark' condition. Deflection, or displacement, causes scintillations to occur within gases, which is demonstrated in the experiment described _________________________________________________________ 14 Ibid 13 “Plasma structure in a pulsed discharge environment,” Institute Of Physics Publishing, Plasma Sources Science and Technology, Vol. 12, pgs. 295–301 (May 6, 2003); Jéröme Remy, Ludovic Biennier and Farid Salama, NASA Ames Research Center, Space Science Division, MS 245-6, Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000, USA. **The Thomas Young Experiment diffracted light from its normal, equilibrium state!! These experiments only proved that when light is diffracted, it is displaced from its equilibrium state of zero to a state of electrical resistance; the particles undergo emission and absorption to regain equilibrium. 15 19 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 by Ernest Rutherford, shown in the next section. The scintillations that occur when this dark light is deflected or pressurized is burning; the burning results in particle formation as resistances to motion continues. Resistance to motion within the gases causes it to become 'charged' through this 'burning' process. In its natural state; however, which is what dark matter and light is, the gases tend to expand and stabilize in their resonance condition, as outlined in the next section. As subsequent particle experiments demonstrated throughout the 1900’s, a myriad of ‘deflective particles’ can occur from the deflection of this 'dark' energy in all shapes, ‘flavors’ and sizes (the only instance where the ‘Uncertainty Principle’ might actually apply---see ‘Schrödinger’s Waves,’ pg. 122-123). There were many questions that remained with regard to this 'dark' energy state. After Thomson's conclusion was made, no one went back to measure the cathode rays in their natural condition to determine whether or not these rays were, in fact, hydrogen ions, or whether or not their frequency would place them in a category, as Röntgen had proposed, that would be another 'form' of ultraviolet. Having done so, would have given them an 'identity' on the spectral charts, i.e., placed them within the electromagnetic spectrum of light. In addition, it would have shown that the decay of hydrogen produces particles, and that the radioactive decay elements are products derived from this decay. The next section will show that 'dark energy,' generally, is hydrogen, and that hydrogen in its normal, steady-state condition is a free neutron that fuses easily, into coherent states of light . Through Thomson’s experiments, it was proposed that cathode rays were composed of small charged ‘particles’; smaller than the smallest atom. Thomson found this ratio e/m to be independent of the material of which the cathode was composed, and in 1899, he found that the particles had the same e/m, so it was proposed that the particles and cathode rays were probably one and the same phenomena; electrons. Thomson was able to find the charge e, for the particles produced, while working on a 'cloud chamber' experiment with his student, C. T. R. Wilson. They introduced cathode rays into a supersaturated vapor. Tiny droplets formed around each 'free electron.' Thomson and Wilson estimated the total number of droplets formed by counting, then, they determined the total charge by collecting the droplets on an electro- 20 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 scope. Their results were off by almost 40%, but close enough to suggest strongly that the particles had the same magnitude charge as the hydrogen ion. Thomson’s newly devised static model embedded his electrons in a uniform positive charge (a +ion), which caused the electrons to obey Poisson’s equation [again, with the ‘uniform’ positive charge: a hydrogen ion]. Thomson proposed that the positive charge was concentrated into a small massive nucleus. Cathode rays, then, which J. J. Thomson had originally proposed to be a ‘substratum,’ or building block of the atom, as well as the ‘substance’ of which the aether might be composed, became an ‘electrical charge’; the smallest particle embedded within a 'uniform positive charge.' Thomson: “The electrified-particle theory has for purposes of research a great advantage over the aetherial theory, since it is definite and its consequences can be predicted; with the aetherial theory it is impossible to predict what will happen under any given circumstances, as on this theory we are dealing with hitherto unobserved phenomena in the aether, of whose laws we are ignorant.” 16 In every instance, instead of measuring the rays in their natural ‘dark’ state, the dark light was refracted or deflected, and the product derived from motion is what was measured; an electrically resistive particle was the result (especially when cyclotrons and particle accelerators were developed). The discovery of x-rays was a life-altering event. Scientists scrambled to see what could be done with them. Among them was the aforementioned Ernest Rutherford, who had worked as a research student with J. J. Thomson at the Cavendish laboratory at Cambridge University in England. Thomson had invited Rutherford, in 1896, to assist him with a study of the affect of x-rays on gases. Thomson and Rutherford had found that the gas molecules break-up into positively and negatively charged ions, which make them electrically conductive (that says it all; the deflection of gas causes it to become 'charged'--more on this later). By 1897 Rutherford began a _________________________________________________________ 16 J. J. Thomson, Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (1897). [facsimile from Stephen Wright, Classical Scientific Papers, Physics (Mills and Boon, 1964).] http://maple.lemoyne.edu/faculty/giunta/thomson1897.html 21 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 study of radioactivity by performing scattering experiments on various elements with the x-rays. His work in this area with uranium, where he wrapped uranium with layers of aluminum foil, resulted in the production of what he deemed alpha and beta rays. The alpha rays, Rutherford proposed, were a "less penetrating" type of radiation and the beta rays a "more penetrating" type radiation. Later, Rutherford found an even more penetrating type radiation than the beta rays, which was described by French physicist, Paul Villard, as "gamma radiation." In 1898, Rutherford became Second MacDonald Professor of Physics at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, where he resumed his study of radioactivity with the element thorium. Thorium, he found, emits alpha, beta and gamma radiation; however, a third 'erratic' radiation made an appearance in the emission patterns of the thorium. In 1901, Rutherford joined with Frederick Soddy, a chemist at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, in the further study of the thorium emissions, as well as other radioactive elements. Emulating the work in the area of radioactivity of other well-known chemists and physicists, in praticular, Henri Becquerel and Sir William Crookes, who had isolated an 'active part' of uranium from an 'inert,' inactive part, Rutherford and Soddy began isolating thorium. They obtained, as the active part, a portion that they named thorium-X, which gradually lost its radioactivity. The 'parent,' or original thorium; however, regained its activity. Rutherford and Soddy's explanation of radioactivity showed that alpha, beta and gamma radiation were physical manifestations of radioactive disintegration; these radiations were the 'pieces' of the thorium atom that was released as it decayed. The thorium was being transmuted into a new element of lower atomic number as it decayed. For their explanation of the radioactive decay process, Rutherford and Soddy earned the 1908 Nobel Prize. In 1903, Rutherford had proved, experimentally, that alpha particles are nuclei of helium atoms. In 1907, Rutherford was appointed professor of physics at Manchester University, England, where he continued his studies of radioactivity, by scattering elements with alpha particles (helium). It was from these studies that he was able to announce by 1911, his concept of the atom, surmising that it did not resemble, as his former professor, J. J. Thomson, had proposed a "plum pudding" of positively charged nuclear particles (hydrogen protons) embedded with electrons, but instead consisted of a very small dense nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. His colleagues at Manchester, Ernest Marsden and Hans Geiger (Geiger and Rutherford had together 22 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 devised a method of scattering alpha particles in electric and magnetic fields, proving that they had positive charge) provided the mathematics to support Rutherford's atomic model theory. Rutherford and Marsden observed in 1914 that alpha particles fired into hydrogen gas produce uncommon numbers of scintillations. Rutherford, at first, concluded that the scintillations were being caused by the hydrogen nuclei. He later observed, however, that the same effect occurred when alpha particles were fired into nitrogen. By 1919, Rutherford determined that the alpha particles were splitting the nitrogen atoms (In 1925 physicists Paul Maynard Stewart Blackett and C. T. R. Wilson verified Rutherford's findings and showed that the split occurs as a result of the absorption of the alpha particles by the element) and that the extraneous hydrogen atoms were remnants of the split.17 This is such an important point within the experiment; however, it was virtually ignored, because hydrogen, as an element had already been discovered, and the scattering of hydrogen, which causes it to burn (scintillations), like a particle would, would be a chemistry matter, not a nuclear one; these scientists were creating a whole new field of science, and they knew it. The scintillations in the hydrogen would not win a Nobel Prize, unless it could be shown that the scintillations produce a particle, which will be shown later that it is. The scintillations, therefore, were just noteworthy, falling into the realm of chemistry, a field of science that they were trying to avoid. They could not have known, also, that hydrogen would become of value to the world in the future as a potential fuel product. The 'extraneous hydrogen'; the hydrogen atoms gained as 'remnants of the split,' I propose, are the 'binding energy'; the energy already present, and holding the particles together! It has, literally, come from the hydrogen bonds! The alpha particles, or helium, too, are a major portion of the 'extraneous hydrogen' produced from these experiments. This energy source, hydrogen, as UTC Theory will demonstrate, is the binding energy in all radioactive decay elements. The hydrogen is a product of the fusion of hydrogen, which occurs early in the Earth's atmosphere. The fusion product is the energy that lies latent within all of the atomic elements; it is a conserved, stored energy source. William Thomson was among the 'old guard' of scientists, who did not _________________________________________________________ “Scientists: The Lives and Works of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 3, pgs. 805-813; Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996). 17 23 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 believe that radioactivity was a discovery at all, feeling that it could be explained through already discovered phenomena. He gave lectures on the subject near the end of his career. There were many other scientists who believed this 'Victorian science,' as they called it (wrong choice of words, implying that their ideas were out-dated). The fact is, Rutherford's 'alpha and beta rays' were just new words, devised by him, in order to describe already discovered phenomena. When Rutherford coined these terms; however, he was unaware of what he had found. It took years of research to determine their characteristics and functions. The alpha rays are helium. The beta rays are x-rays; the gamma radiation, which is an extension in frequency of x-rays, also a penetrating radiation, however, was a new discovery. Rutherford proposed that these three 'items' come from the 'dense' nucleus of the atom, and that electrons form a cloud surrounding the nucleus. In Germany, Walter Bothe began bombarding beryllium with alpha particles and produced another 'new form of radiation,' which he explained in terms of gamma radiation. In 1932, after bombarding beryllium with alpha particles, the Joliot-Curies, also obtained what they described as an 'uncharged radiation emitting from the target atoms, and difficult to detect.' The Joliot-Curies determined that the emission was from the nuclei, and in turn caused protons (a 'particle' term devised by Rutherford; protons are hydrogen ions) to be ejected from the nuclei of atoms in paraffin. James Chadwick, who was working at the Cavendish Laboratory where Rutherford, in 1919, had been appointed to succeed J. J. Thomson's position as Cavendish Professor and as head of the Cavendish Laboratory, and had performed experiments with Rutherford between 1920 to 1924, raced to determine what the 'new radiation' could be. Rutherford had predicted in a paper that he published in 1921 that a 'neutron,' a 'particle' term that he devised, could exist within the atomic nucleus as a tightly bound proton and electron. Chadwick, therefore, not wanting to be 'trumped' by the Joliot-Curies in the discovery of the neutron, recognized that a highenergy 'uncharged radiation' was just what Rutherford had predicted almost a decade earlier. Chadwick, fervently pursued the discovery for himself, coming to his conclusions within a 'few hectic days.' 18 He first confirmed the Joliot-Curie's findings and measured the mass of the _________________________________________________________ 18 “Science--A History 1543-2001,” by John Gribbin; Allen Lane, An Imprint of Penguin Books, The Penguin Group (2002), pgs. 507-508. 24 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 'new neutral radiation,' which he proposed to be slightly greater than the proton (another term devised by Rutherford). Chadwick proposed that alpha particles were knocking the neutral particles out of the beryllium with which he was working, and that these 'neutral particles' were what had knocked the protons (hydrogen nuclei) from the paraffin used by the Joliot-Curies. Paraffin contains an abundance of hydrogen. The 'new neutral form of radiation,' which had been proposed to be similar to gamma radiation, became a 'new particle' as Chadwick calculated the radiation to be slightly greater than the mass of one hydrogen atom (one proton and one electron), deducing (or should we say 'influenced by Rutherford's suggestion in his 1921 paper) that what he had obtained was a combination of two energy sources: one proton and one electron. The hydrogen proton is a positive charge and the electron a negative charge (H1), and the general idea was that the charges cancel one another, 19 causing the overall particle to be a neutral 'charge'; the neutron, exactly as it was predicted by Rutherford in his 1921 paper. Chadwick's hypothesis, therefore, not only completed the atomic structure of the elements, i.e., as Rutherford's atomic model theory had proposed it to be, but the Cavendish Laboratory had produced every one of the discoverers of the particles that were proposed to comprise the atom, as well; and all of the discoverers had been awarded Nobel Prizes. Chadwick's neutron is reminiscent of the 'extraneous hydrogen' produced in the 1914 experiment conducted by Rutherford and Marsden, and confirmed in 1925 by Paul Maynard Steward Blackett and C. T. R. Wilson, who proposed that absorption of the alpha rays (helium nuclei) was producing the 'extraneous hydrogen (which scintillated or burned) from the split.' As you will see, the Remy, et al. experiment 20 shown later, obtained similar results; particles are produced through pressures imposed on an expanded gas (argon). Unlike the Joliot-Curie and Bothe findings, which cited that they had discovered an 'uncharged radiation that was similar to gamma radiation,' Chadwick's neutron involves two separate charges; one positive and one negative (H1) that, mathematically, cancel one another. This idea of charge cancellation, as has already been outlined, dates _________________________________________________________ “Scientists: The Lives and Works of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 3, pgs. 805-813; Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996). 20 Ibid 15 19 25 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 back to Maxwell's Equations. Rutherford had predicted that the electron in his neutron would form a boundary condition; tightly binding the hydrogen proton. It was pointed out when Chadwick presented his neutron hypothesis, that the electron follows classical theory; it is a moving, charged particle that would radiate off all of its energy, and slowly spiral, or collapse into the nucleus. Neils Bohr, who had worked at the Cavendish with J. J. Thomson, and later with Rutherford at the University of Manchester until 1916, overcame the obstacle with the use of quantum theory, as it had been proposed by Max Planck, who had studied blackbody radiation at the University of Berlin. A blackbody is an object that absorbs all of the electromagnetic radiation that falls on it, and then releases that radiation in the form of thermal energy. Planck proposed that energy could be released, not continuously as in classical theory, but in bundles that he called 'quanta.' The energy of the 'quanta' was formulated by Planck into a mathematical 'constant,' now called the Planck constant, which gives the emitted 'quanta' as a proportioned unit that is dependent on the frequency of the wave. In the Planck analogy, 'energy elements' (he conceded to the fact that the chemical elements were the energy 'oscillators' in his model), are divided into finite, but very large number of equal, tiny parts, which constitute a constant in nature (back to this later). Bohr proposed that electrons remained in their orbits within the nucleus because they are not capable of continuously emitting radiation. Using Planck's analogy of 'quanta,' Bohr suggested that the electrons could travel around the nucleus without radiating energy, provided they remain in certain restricted orbits. Bohr further proposed that the electrons could move, or jump from one orbit to another by gaining or losing one quantum or several quanta of energy (Einstein never agreed with Bohr's analogies in this regard), and devised an equation for calculating the frequency of radiation that could be expected when electrons make various energy transfers within the atom. These frequencies were for the hydrogen atom, as they had been proposed by Johann Balmer, who had developed a hydrogen spectrum through a formula that he devised (not based on observations) for the wavelengths of hydrogen. The hydrogen spectrum formed 'lines' according to wavelength. Chadwick's neutron, therefore, as it had been proposed by Rutherford, became part of the nucleus, along with the proton. The experimental researchers and mathematicians have not taken into 26 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 account the 'space' that exists between these charged particles in their formulas. They have made their formulas contract the hydrogen into the smallest bit of mass, to include the electron. But the electron is not a gas; hydrogen is the gas that constitutes the smallest 'bit' of matter, and the lightest element. Electrical charge is a different kind of force than the forces of magnetism, as was outlined in the beginning chapters of this book. The two forces of electricity, as they exist within an atom would appear nearly the same as the two forms of electricity that can be seen in the vacuum tube; dark energy and glowing, or emissive light. Do these two energy sources cancel one another, even as is proposed, when energy is introduced into the tube, and travels due to its respective 'charging' to its opposite charge? The answer is obvious...No. These radiations are, actually, repelling one another, performing a 'push-pull' effect (e.m.f), in their relation to one another, rather than attracting, and cancelling out, or as was shown in the section on 'Magnetic Effect,' (spiralling into or collapsing into the nucleus would be this same effect). Opposite electrical charges may work out to be cancelled, mathematically, but in reality, they do not cancel one another, but rather oppose one another as an e.m.f. Why, because electrical energy (or charging) is the result of displacement, or resistance. Early in his researches, Faraday had noticed that the two electrical powers; positive and negative, were not exactly equal and opposite, and as has already been shown, he had been annoyed with the terms 'positive' and 'negative,' because they did not aptly portray what is really going on with charge. Faraday proposed that charge was merely a matter of degree; the positive more and the negative less. He found, after experimenting with vacuum tubes in 1838 that charges moved from weaker to stronger points of force in the tube, 21 and established that a ‘wave’ always travels from the negative electrode to the positive electrode. He validated this fact many times through the course of his investigations, noting as a final remark: “…still I feel as if the source of the rays was at the Neg.wire.” 22 It was many years later that these rays were given the name cathode rays, but Faraday was never given credit for having discovered them. _________________________________________________________ 21 Ibid 2, p. 503, M. Faraday, Diary 7, 458 [276]. 22 Ibid 2, p. 503, M. Faraday, Thirteenth Series, Chapter Six, Section 3. 27 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Faraday: “All the phaenomena resolve themselves into this, that a portion of such matter, when under magnetic action, tends to move from stronger to weaker places or points of force. When the substance is surrounded by lines of magnetic force of equal power on all sides, it does not tend to move, as is then in marked contradistinction with a linear current of electricity under the same circumstances.” (2418) The 'uncharged radiation,' discovered by Bothe and elaborated upon by the Joliot-Curies was the 'true' neutron; a state of hydrogen that is as Faraday proposed in his experimental research (2428), shown above, this radiation is 'of equal magnetic force of equal power on al sides, [which] does not tend to move, as is then in marked contradistinction with a linear current of electricity under the same circumstances." This 'uncharged radiation' was Faraday's state of 'no magnetic action' a state of magnetization that is 'unstrained'; a state of hydrogen, which is light, that is perfect diamagnetism, explained in the next section. In 1949, Maria-Goeppert-Mayer, mathematically, placed all of the discovered 'particles' into the nucleus from which Rutherford had proposed they had come. Goeppert-Mayer proposed that the protons and neutrons formed 'layers' in the nucleus that unpeel like an 'onion,' forming nuclear shells. Her mathematics proposed that any element having one of what she called her "magic numbers," i.e., either protons or neutrons of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126 within the element, then it was a stable element. In collaboration with German physicist, Jensen, Goeppert-Mayer co-published, "Elementary Theory Of Nuclear Shell Structure," which won her the Nobel Prize in 1963. 23 The atomic nucleus, as such, has been the accepted theory since. _______________________________________________________________________________________ “Scientists: The Lives and Works of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 2, pgs. 399-404; Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996). 23 28 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 ‘VIOLET' AND 'ULTRAVIOLET' CATASTROPHIES William Herschel (1738-1822) ** determined through experimentation that heat is spread out in a spectrum, as is light. 24 He placed a thermometer at various places in the spectrum and noted the temperatures. Herschel expected that heat would be the most intense in the middle of the spectrum and fall away at either end. Instead, the temperature rose steadily as he progressed away from violet, and reached its highest point at the extreme red. This experiment demonstrated that as temperatures get colder energy intensity, i.e. wavelengths, get shorter! Herschel’s findings have since been ignored, because circa 1847 William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) began working on the heat and energy of certain gases. He had become especially interested in the work of French physicist Jacques Charles, who had found, mathematically, that for every degree centigrade below zero a gas was cooled, the volume of the gas would decrease by 1/273. The implications of Charles’ proposal, was that at -273º C the volume of the gas would be zero. Experimental proof was never obtained to substantiate or not to _________________________________________________________ **Note: Herschel pioneered discoveries in nearly every branch of astronomy; he classified star clusters and nebulae, proposing an evolutionary pattern for their classes, cataloging 2,500 of them. His method for calculating the size of stars led to the field of quantative stellar photometry (the study of the intensity of stars’ light), and he confirmed that infrared rays do exist. He discovered the planet Uranus and two of its satellites, which gained him appointment as Royal Astronomer by King George III. He, also, identified two satellites of the planet Jupiter. Additionally, he developed a cosmogony of the Universe, proposing that stars cluster together over time, and produced evidence for the powers of attraction between stars. Ibid 3, pg. 441-447. 24 Ibid 3, pgs. 59, 90, W. Herschel, ‘Investigation of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and Illuminate Objects; with Remarks, that prove the different Refrangibility of radiant Heat.’ To which is added, an Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of large Apertures and high magnifying Powers,’ Phil. Trans., l800, Part II, 255 ff. ‘Experiments on the Refrangibility of the Invisible Rays of the Sun,’ ibid., 284 ff. ‘Experiments on the Solar and on the Terrestrial Rays that occasion Heat; with a comparative View of the Laws to which Light and Heat, or rather the Rays which occasion them, are subject in order to determine whether they are the same or different,’ ibid., 293 ff, Part III, 437 ff. 29 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 substantiate Charles’ proposal, however, in 1848, Thomson theorized (also mathematically, but also never observed) that when the temperature of a gas is reduced, so is the energy level of the atoms in the gas; as the atoms move less they take up less room, decreasing the volume of the gas. 25 At -273ºC the energy level of the atoms, Thomson proposed reaches zero, and the atoms stop moving. Present-day BoseEinstein Condensate experiments, which utilize laser techniques to condense atoms in magnetic traps, however, are indicating that atoms remain very active and difficult to control at ultra-cold levels. BEC experiments are shown later in this text, two of which used hydrogen, and obtained what the experimenters refer to as a ‘Doppler-sensitive’ ultraviolet state that ‘hovers at zero.’ 26, 27 Thomson supported his explanation of Jacques Charles’ theory by developing an ‘absolute temperature scale,’ later renamed the ‘Kelvin scale’ of absolute temperatures, which was accepted without much opposition, since Thomson had already gained favor among his colleagues through his work in establishing the age of the Earth (albeit wrong), and had also performed experiments in collaboration with James Prescott Joule** to explain gas behavior. The Thomson and _________________________________________________________ 25 “Scientists: The Lives and Works of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 3, pgs. 905-910; Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996). 26 "Bose-Einstein Condensation of Atomic Hydrogen," Phys. Rev. Lett., Vol. 81, No. 18 (2 November 1998), Dale G. Fried, Thomas C. Killian, Lorenz Willmann, David Landhuis, Stephen C. Moss, Daniel Kleppner, and Thomas J. Greytak, Department of Physics and Center for Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139. 27 “Bose-Einstein condensation in atomic hydrogen,” T. J. Greytak, D. Kleppner, D. G. Fried, T. C. Killian 2, L. Willmann, D. Landhuis, S. C. Moss, Physics Department and Center for Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,Cambridge, MA 02139, USA (2000). **Thomson had been a child prodigy, entering college at age ten, he completed his degree in only a few years, he finished second in his class, subsequently enrolled for post-graduate studies at Cambridge University, and later the University of Paris while still in his teens. His father was a respected mathematician, and professor at the University of Glasgow (where Thomson first attended at age ten). Thomson, therefore, was held in awe among his colleagues early in his life. He is most famous for his development of the Kelvin scale, which he had accomplished by age twenty-four. 30 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Charles hypothesis, therefore, was incorporated with Boyle’s Law to form what became known as the ‘Combined Gas Laws.’ Boyle’s Law, which was established through experimental observations, states that at a given temperature [which would include any temperature], the volume occupied by a gas is inversely proportionate to the pressure. If the pressure is increased, the volume [of gas] decreases. Conversely, if the pressure is decreased, the volume of gas expands and increases. This would mean that in a vacuum, where there is no pressure, gas expansion increases the volume. As shown in the previous section, Röntgen obtained x-rays by evacuating vacuum chambers, which gave room for expansion. Expansion increased volume, and frequency, as well. Prior to the establishment of the Kelvin scale, Thomson and Joule had established through experiment that when gas is introduced into a vacuum it expands and cools (Joule-Thomson Effect), and if cooled enough the gas will convert to liquid (liquefaction). Since this finding is a complete contradiction to the ‘Combined Gas Laws’ and the Kelvin scale, which proposes that the temperature and pressure at which the volume of a gas is measured are the conditions of measurement (PV/T), we can assume that the ‘Combined Gas Laws’ apply only to the gas behavior in a closed environment, or confined medium, e.g., a leyden jar, but not a vacuum. Included in the Combined Gas Law is the statement that ‘decreased pressure increases the volume of gas, and the gas expands,’ which is what was observed to occur in the JouleThomson Effect; however, the gas cools, instead of heating as is proposed in the Combined Gas Laws. The formula (PV/T) predicts that with decreased pressure and increase in volume, the temperature, or heat will increase, instead of expanding and cooling as the JouleThomson Effect had established through experimental findings. Boyle’s Law, which had been established through experimental observation, complies with the Joule-Thomson Effect; so the ‘Combined Gas Laws’ are not a combination at all; but rather Boyle’s original Law was ‘lost’ to the Kelvin/Charles formula. The problem lies in the interpretation of temperature. Boyle’s Law is not specific concerning temperature, so it is interpreted to mean that when there is temperature, i.e., any temperature above absolute zero, the volume increases. However, Boyle’s Law infers that the volume of a gas is opposite to pressure. At high pressure, the volume is low or nil; at low 31 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 pressure, as in a vacuum, the volume is high; just as he stated, the ‘inverse’ of one another. There is no provision in the Combined Gas Laws for the special’ conditions that the Joule-Thomson Effect, or expansion and cooling in an evacuated medium would require, which should be at normal, or near ‘normal temperature ranges. Since the laws conflict, the JouleThomson Effect, being a separate law from the Combined Gas Laws, is usually ignored. The Combined Gas Laws propose through formula that heat is always positive, because from ‘absolute zero’ forward, as gas expands, the volume of gas increases, along with heat. The Combined Gas Laws, also, would seem to be in violation of the Law of the Conservation of Energy [and mass], in that there is a creation of energy and mass occurring from, seemingly, from nowhere through the expansion process. Boyle’s Law and the Joule-Thomson Effect, at least imply that the ‘process of expansion’ increases the volume of a gas and relieves pressure, which cools and ‘conserves’ it, whereas increased pressure produces heat, diminishing the volume. By 1816, heat was widely considered to be a material entity; hypothesized by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier to be a ‘caloric’; an imponderable fluid. Heat, might have explained the increase in volume through the expansion process, but the ‘caloric’ was proposed to be undetectable because of its ‘balanced’ state. It lay latent within ponderable matter (hence the name ‘imponderable fluid’), appearing in ways other than temperature, only exhibiting its association with ponderable matter through chemical combinations. It was proposed that the ‘caloric’ could exist within the interstices of a material ‘body.’ If the ‘caloric’ particles were mutually repulsive, the increase in temperature meant expansion had occurred from its ‘balanced’ state. In this change of state, the latent heat was absorbed, increasing distance (and motion) between particles of the caloric-matter. 28 (Thomson’s Kelvin scale (1848), proposes the opposite; ultra-cold temperatures, instead of heat, causes gas particles to spread out and become motionless). In 1857 Joseph Black discovered ‘latent heat.’ Black had observed the slowness of snow melting in the spring sunshine, which led him to _________________________________________________________ 28 Ibid 3, pgs. 54-55 32 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 investigate the heat absorbed or released when any chemical change takes place. He recognized that when ice passes from solid to liquid state, a considerable amount of heat is absorbed, without any change in temperature. However, when he reversed the process, heat was released, indicating that the heat had always been present, however, in latent form. Black reasoned that if heat were a fluid, then, instead of a result of the motion of resistive particles (point atoms), a chemical reaction would occur. Water could be viewed as a compound of ice, as well as the ‘fluid’ of heat. Heat, Black had found, is intimately connected with matter, however, unmanifest as temperature, which supported Antoine Laurent Lavoisier’s views on the combustibility of oxygen and the ‘caloric’ as a state of ‘balance.’ The volume increase of an expanded gas, as proposed through the Kelvin scale, we can assume then, was ignored as a conservation violation, because it was considered that no violation had occurred. The increase in gas volume could be explained through the mechanism of the imponderable fluid; the caloric, which then became ‘latent heat,’ and the current explanation. Heat is not a gas. Heat is the result of the motion of the gas, and through deflection, pressurization or compression of gas its resistance to the change generates heat (negative Joule-Thomson Effect); enough heat can result in the burning of the gas. Supposedly, the imponderables were, eventually, dismissed, but the fact is, they have remained; however, now they are, euphemistically, referred to as ‘quantum fluids.’ The ‘latent heat’ explanation remained, as well, because gases do generate heat through motion. Heat; however, is a result of motion, not a ‘cause’ waiting to occur. I propose that what happened in the Black experiment was that on that given day, heat was not a factor, because the atmospheric pressure was nominal. The gases in the air had expanded and cooled, due to the cold temperature, and as a solid, the ice, too, was in an expanded state. All temperatures were, more than likely, the same, i.e., around 32º in the air and the ice, so there was very little, if any, heat effect or melting. UTC Theory proposes that the combustibility of oxygen is gained early in the Earth’s atmosphere. The ozone (O3), we know, absorbs ultraviolet radiation high in the Earth’s atmosphere. UTC theory proposes that the oxygen (O2) in our air product is a fissioned product of the ozone layer (the nitrogen N14 is a fissioned product, as well). 33 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 The oxygen in the air product emits its ‘absorbed dose’ of ultraviolet radiation as hydrogen in acid and base reactions. The whole radioactive decay process centers upon this combustive process. Heat cancels magnetism, and the heavier the radioactive decay element, the more combustible it has become, because it is less magnetic, or less emitting and absorbing, and combustibility takes over as parity is lost (more concerning parity in PART III.); the magnetic forces become weak, and matter is, therefore, a poor conductor, absorbing the energy that it inducts from the medium, and emitting very little, heat or combustibility begins to dominate, and fission occurs. In interstellar space, a super-nova event is the result of just this occurrence. In chemistry, advanced radioactive decay, or fissioning of the radioactive element is the result. All matter emits ‘characteristic x-rays,’ as well as gamma radiation, because these radiations are what the H0 is as an energy source in the interstellar medium. Albeit, H0 begins at ultraviolet frequency, the expansion of this state, which was shown in the last chapter, results in the production of x-rays and gamma radiation. This energy exists within all matter, as explained in the cosmology that begins in PART III. While the subject is back on radioactivity, it might as well be said, here, the spontaneous emission of neutrons from seemingly nowhere, too, violates Conservation Laws. Enrico Fermi, who postulated that radioactive decay is the result of neutrons that decay in the nucleus of an element toward the formation of protons and electrons, 29 was aware that his proposal violated conservation laws, as were his colleagues. In order to ‘get around’ the violation, Fermi proposed (at the suggestion of Wolfgang Pauli) that the nucleus of an element contains a ‘neutrino’: a ‘smaller’ neutron than the one that decays toward the production of a proton and electron, but the neutrino still caused a violation of the conservation laws. Fermi’s neutrino hypothesis was preserved when Lise Meitner, along with her nephew, Otto Frisch, provided an explanation for Fermi’s neutron decay hypothesis. Meitner gave a mathematical explanation for the spontaneous fissioning (a term 'borrowed' from chemistry) of Uranium, which had been chemically performed in Berlin by Meitner’s former colleague, Otto Hahn and his ________________________________________________ “Scientists: The Lives and Works Of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 1, pg. 287; Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996). 29 34 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 colleague, Fritz Strassman (published in Naturwissenschaften in early January, 1939). The ‘balanced’ equations put forth by Meitner indicated that there could be spontaneous production of neutrons through the fissioning of the original neutron, which produced a chain reaction of fission producing thousands of others. She calculated that the energy associated with pushing two positively charged nuclear fragments apart to be approximately 200 million electron volts (MeV) per uranium atom. By comparison, the most energetic chemical reactions release approximately 5 eV per atom. But from where was the energy required to separate the uranium nucleus coming? The existing data on the masses of the elements showed that the sum of the masses of the smaller product nuclei [neutrino] was less than the mass of uranium. Meitner used Einstein’s equation E = mc2 to calculate the energy associated with this mass difference, which Einstein had postulated to be the ‘nuclear binding energy’; the energy Meitner proposed could be associated with pushing two fission fragments apart. Einstein’s calculations had revealed that the energy equivalent to the mass difference was equal to 200 MeV! Otto Frisch verified the results at his laboratory at the Neils Bohr Institute in Copenhagen. Meitner’s explanation; however, was for the fissioning of heavy radioactive decay elements through neutron bombardment. In other words, her explanation was for a neutron induced reaction; the neutrons were provided to cause the chain reaction to occur! Spontaneous fission is another thing entirely, and only occurs in the heaviest radioactive elements, e.g., Uranium. The neutrino; however, had crept in through the back door, accepted as fact, because it could be explained as having come from the ‘nuclear binding energy.’ There are questions that still remain, however, especially in how lighter radioactive decay elements undergo decay, if it is through neutron decay, then from where is the neutron derived? If there is a ‘nuclear binding energy’ then why is this energy source, which is ‘binding,’ or possibly cohering and holding the particles together, ‘pushing’ the nuclei apart through spontaneous fissioning? See the contradictions? Neutrons do not spontaneously generate off or from themselves, causing a nuclear chain reaction. We do know that from this premise the atomic bomb was devised and exploded quite well; however, the bomb was actually built upon the premise of spontaneous fission, i.e., it was developed from the premise of spontaneous fission (not neutron bombardment). Fermi built the ‘first self-sustaining chain reaction’ 35 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 with a pile of Uranium 235; the natural radioactivity of which caused the Uranium to split. If neutrons [or neutrinos] are generated in spontaneous fission, and the neutrons comprise a ‘nuclear binding energy,’ then from where has it originated? If the ‘binding energy’ is composed of a ‘smaller neutron,’ from where was it derived? The fact that neutrinos are little neutrons renders them neutral, which serves to keep the energy ‘conserved,’ but the energy and mass conservation laws are founded upon the premise that all matter comes from an ‘already created [conserved energy] source that, simply, takes new form’ All other energy does not, necessarily, have to be conserved along with it (and there is a lot of confusion about that). Using a mathematical formula to keep the newly introduced energy substance conserved, causes it to remain in phase with the ‘already created source,’ but conserving the 'newly introduced' energy source does not make it the originating, already created energy source, or the first cause! ‘Photons’ are a good example of this usage of the conservation concept to advance one’s theories. Photons, too, are proposed to be massless, chargeless entities, like neutrinos. The ‘binding energy,’ too, was never explained as to its derivation. These are all good explanations, but they are just different ‘words’ (misnomers, because they lack experimental evidence—but that is another subject; there is always someone who ‘spots’ these elusive particles that spring from mathematical scenarios) that substitute for the ether. These ‘balanced energy sources,’ are carried into mainstream science, and create a plethora of other hypotheses that are, inherently, (by way of the first violation) more violations of the conservation laws. For this reason, no one has been able to establish, or complete a Unified Field Theory. Our gas laws are intertwined into all chemical, physical (physics) and nuclear theory. The German physicist, Wilhelm Wien, whose investigations on blackbody radiation led Max Planck to formulate his quantum theory; the 'constant' that Bohr used to support the Rutherford atomic model, was developed from 'Wien's Displacement Law,' which states that the wavelength of radiation emitted by a blackbody is inversely proportionate to the temperature of the body (here we go again with Kelvin's scale). Wien's Displacement Law proposes that at low temperatures a blackbody will radiate energy at low-long wavelength (microwaves). In the Wien analogy, as the temperature rises, the volume of gas increases, and the wavelength becomes 'smaller' (shorter), and the color of the emitted light changes to orange, 36 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 yellow and then white. Wien developed a mathematical formula to show a relationship between the amount of energy radiated by a blackbody at each wavelength as it relates to the various temperatures. He published his theories in 1896; however, his complex equations did not work well for long wavelengths (low temperatures, and now we know why). In 1900, Max Planck introduced his 'quanta' concept, which, supposedly, solved the radiation problem in the Wien theory. 30 The Planck theory, which is an extension of the Wien analogy, is predicated on the Combined Gas Laws, or the Kelvin scale. The Combined Gas Laws propose that cooling occurs from increased pressure (not expansion as in the Joule-Thomson Effect), causing the volume to get smaller, or ‘contract.’ So, this concept of gas 'contraction,' which is an effect from cooling, according to The Combined Gas Laws, has been applied, generally, to all gas conditions, which are simultaneously 'particle' conditions, even as it exists in a vacuum. Therefore, we consider that the volume of gas is ‘contracted’ to the smallest bit of matter; the electron, which Bohr showed, mathematically, could exist in a ground state. Since contraction is related to cooling, then, this smallest bit of matter as an 'electron' gas, would also be the coldest state possible; absolute zero, which according to the Combined Gas Laws, is a state of gas that is diminished in frequency and volume. Does gas contract to a ground state electron, and why? An 'annihilation' of energy is just as much a conservation violation as an increase of energy from, seemingly nowhere. Does energy do the opposite, expand and grow in volume into a resonance, or high-energy condition that is high heat? If so, the expansion of hydrogen in the interstellar medium would be a very hot situation, instead of the cold one that it is. _________________________________________________________ 30 Ibid 29, Vol. 3, pg. 762. 37 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 In the NIST graph,31 shown below, there is a progressive narrowing as flux diminishes in the ultraviolet range of light, which is between 300400 nm. The graph, published in the ‘Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology,’ shows densities of state in the ultraviolet range. The densities range from 10 8 to 10 2. UTC Theory proposes that H0 would be at the peak, or highest point in the graph; the lowest density element, yet at UV frequency. As this state, hydrogen is a free neutron fuses, increasing density; however, the energy is not ‘spent,’ but is stored and ‘conserved’ in this condition (zero-flux), and maintains its frequency level of UV. The NIST graph, shown, was published in the ‘Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology,’ in a publication intended to report possibilities for error in the performance of different meter instrumentation used to measure UV, and address common sources of measurement errors using meter apparatus. The group proposes that large errors can occur due to out-of-band, non-linear, and non-ideal geometric or spatial response of the UV meters. The graph shows the differences measured with two different devices, cited as _________________________________________________________ “Sources of Error in UV Radiation Measurements,” ‘Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology,’ Volume 106, Number 4, (July–August 2001); T. C. Larason and C. L. Cromer. 31 38 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Meter A and Meter B in the photo. There is a standing wave shown in the graph at 300-400 nm, which shows densities of state in the ultraviolet range. Densities range from 10 8 to 10 2 UTC Theory proposes that the progressive narrowing at 300-400 nm in the NIST graph, shown above, is an increase in density as flux decreases; however, as can be seen, even though there is a diminution of flux, and an increase in density, the frequency is still maintained within the ultraviolet range of light. The frequency has not diminished with increased density and decreased flux!! The ultra-cold hydrogen experiments, shown later, which are the conditions similar to the interstellar medium, imposed extreme conditions upon hydrogen, which included the laserization of it at radio-frequencies, and yet, a part of the hydrogen maintained a frequency in the ultraviolet frequency range, which the experimenters reported to be normal hydrogen. The ultracold experiments, also, depict a narrowing, or contraction that occurs in this range of light, which hovers at 'zero.' It is assumed from the Combined Gas Laws that a diminishing flux means that there is diminution of frequency to low-long wavelength radiation (microwaves), along with temperature decrease. The volume of gas contracts, or diminishes, as well. The narrowing in the NIST graph can serve to prove this point; but 'contraction,' which UTC Theory proposes is due to increased density, does not affect frequency. The contraction, therefore, could be due to the shortening of the wavelength. As can be seen in the graph, no matter what the flux and density state, the frequency is maintained at ultraviolet, which is exactly what happened in the ultra-cold experiments. UTC Theory proposes that at what would be ‘zero flux’ in the graph is, yet, another increase in density, and that the radiation has entered another phase; a coherent spectrum of light that is vacuum radiation. At the zero-flux, or zero oscillation point, the high density gas is neutral; a highfrequency radiation that exceeds the ultraviolet phase shown in the graph. UTC Theory proposes that when gas is introduced into a vacuum tube, it expands and cools in its resonance condition, which is a vacuum ultraviolet phase of light. The light has returned to its original, normal equilibrium state as hydrogen (H0); a zero-flux state of light that is nonrefractive black light. The hydrogen is a free neutron that begins to 39 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 fuse, storing and conserving energy in its zero-point condition. Fusion, or storage, increases volume, or density, causing the light to become 'absolutely magnetic'; it is an ideal blackbody, and a super-conducting state of light, i.e., it is an ideal radiator as it generates more of the same (hydrogen H0) through hysteresis loss (magnetic). It is hydrogen in its purest, original form; a state of light that is also a state of perfect diamagnetism (see below); a non-polar state of light (remember, Faraday found that diamagnetism is a non-polar state of magnetism). The light has no-electronegativity, because at zero flux, it is a state of light where there is no resistance, which gives it its super-conducting potential. This phase of light marks the beginning of a coherent spectrum of light; non-refractive black light, which is vacuum radiation, where oscillation or flux has ceased to be, and the light is in phase and coherent in its zero condition. As coherent radiation, it is a strong, attractive force (magnetic permeability, which is density is the attractive or coherent force. Increased magnetic permeability has increased volume, or density.); it is 'all-absorbing' due to its coherency (attractive force due to magnetic density or permeability), which increases its frequency, and yet, the energy maintains its 'zero' flux condition (the attractive forces increase frequencies, however, flux does not occur, because the strong attractive forces have taken over). The light is an ideal blackbody that emits radiation, 32, 33, 34 only, when it is heated. Heat is a factor of resistances, and particle production (as outlined in PART III-PART X.). _______________________________________________________________________________________ “Landau Diamagnetism Revisited,” (29 Jun 2001) Sushanta Dattagupta, Arun M. Jayannavar and Narendra Kumar; S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block JD, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700 098, India Institute of Physics, Sachivalaya Marg, Bhubaneswar 751 005, India Raman Research Institute, Bangalore 560 080, India. 33 “Landau Diamagnetism and Magnetization of Interacting Disordered Conductors,” Gilles Montambaux, December 19, 2000; Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Associé au CNRS, Université Paris Sud, 91405 Orsay, France. 34 “Landau diamagnetism within nonextensive statistical thermodynamics,” (12 Oct 2000)İsmail Sökmen, Fevz Büyükkiliç Doğan Demirhan, Department of Physics, Faculty of Arts&Sciences, Dokuz Eylül, University,Alsancak Ismir, Turkey. 32 40 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 PERFECT DIAMAGNETISM Since the electrical resistance is zero in a perfect diamagnetic medium, super-currents are generated in any mass that forms, i.e., in the event magnetic buildup, currents are generated to resist change, and the currents begin a process of particle production as described in Part V., below. The currents repel the diamagnetic medium in which it exists. The currents the external [diamagnetic] field strength by producing magnetic poles that mirror the magnetic potential of the permanent diamagnetic medium, and the repulsion provides ‘lift,’ or levitation to the mass formed. Since the levitating currents generated within the super-conducting medium meet with no resistance, they can adjust almost instantly to maintain the levitation. The object (which becomes a magnet, as well) can be moved, put into oscillation, and the levitation currents will adjust to keep it in suspension. 41 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 PROBLEMS PRESENTED FROM THE GAS LAWS Subsequent gas related theories have arisen since the Combined Gas Laws were formulated; the Wien Displacement Law, Planck's Constant (which he called 'lucky guess), etc., are carried forward from the 'conflicts' that the gas laws presented. ‘Fermi gases,’ which are composed of non-interacting ‘Fermions,’ having ‘Fermi energy (EF)’ levels that are the 'smallest' possible increases that can be allowed in ground state energy (due to the Pauli Exclusion Principle), follow ‘Fermi-Dirac statistics; all are founded upon conflicting gas laws. Fermi's neutrino, as has been shown, caused a conservation violation (of which everyone was aware) as a 'creation' of energy from, seemingly, nowhere is intimately connected to the Combined Gas Laws as a 'contracted' energy source; one that is neutral instead of electrical, and it was the 'luckiest guess' of all. One can see why a completed Unified Field Theory has not been obtained; however, it has all become so very confusing! All of these ‘gas functions,’ which are also believed to be electron functioning, because the gas contracts into a 'smallest,' or tiny 'unit'; the 'quanta,' are founded on conflicting gas laws. No one has known why the gas, which became a 'particle,' would contract (the neutrino is a neutral 'contracted' gas/particle). The Remy, et. al. 35 experiment, shown later, expands argon in a vacuum, which the group proposes produces highly energetic EEE’s (one can see from the above why they are referred to as ‘extremely energetic electrons.’ UTC theory proposes that the EEE's are free neutrons; hydrogen H0). As pressure is reapplied to the gas in the Remy, et. al. experiment the argon is reinstituted, as well as helium and neon produced. UTC theory proposes that the argon expanded and cooled (Joule-Thomson Effect), where it was conserved in its ‘zeropoint’ state; a high-frequency state that is resonance. The overall energy is in an equilibrium phase; a steady-state condition that is motionless, and as such, the light has gone back into its original, normal state, which is zero (H0); it is a free neutron (H0) and the _________________________________________________________ 35 Ibid 15 **Note: See in Epilogue, “An Attempt Towards A Chemical Conception Of The Ether,” By Professor D. Mendeleeff ; Translated from the Russian by George Kamensky (Imperial Mint, St. Petersburg) Longmans, Green & Co, NY (1904). 42 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 lightest element.** This state of hydrogen fuses easily, into coherent radiation that becomes denser through the fusion process. Energy and mass are conserved and stored in this condition; zero. In its fused state, the hydrogen (H0) experiences little or no flux, which is the reason for its inertia, and lack of particle production; it is non-refractive black light, and an ideal gas (the hydrogen H0 is an ideal gas from which all of the nobles are derived, and should be added to the periodic table of elements). The fissioning of this energy source causes particle production, and heat, if the gas is deflected, or pressurized in any way, it begins to burn through resistance (radioactive decay occurs through this process, as described in Part III, herein). In the Remy, et. al. 36 experiment, pressurization of the ‘dark,’ or black light phase, caused the argon used in the experiment to be reinstituted, and when pressure was increased further, helium and neon formed as well, which UTC theory proposes are the fissioned products, and constituent parts of the argon (helium and neon are, also, nobles). In other words, the increased pressure produced particles, and also broke the argon apart into smaller noble gas elements. The volume did get smaller in this respect, i.e., the volume of gas, argon, fissioned into smaller elements, but nothing contracted. As the volume of gas expanded to what UTC theory proposes is the zero-point state for hydrogen, the frequency increased. At the zero-point phase, the hydrogen is non-refractive (zero-flux) black light, and completely inert, and non-particle producing; vacuum ultraviolet. As such, vacuum ultraviolet is a vacuum. This phase begins at the end of the normal ultraviolet spectrum, and yet, is still part of that spectrum (see NIST chart). This energy, H0, is a conserved energy source that lies latent within matter as the ‘space’ between the particles that it forms, and the force (attractive/coherent) and energy that holds the particles together. UTC Theory proposes that the Bose-Einstein Condensate experiments, which are ultra-cold experiments, shown later, will prove these points. A ‘zero-point’ state of ultraviolet was obtained with the use of hydrogen. The zero-state ultraviolet in these experiments ‘replenishes’ (UTC Theory proposes ‘replenishment’ is possible, because the ‘ultraviolet hovering at zero’ is stored, or a conserved energy source) a ‘broadened current,’ which establishes ‘balance,’ or equilibrium, within the whole reaction. As many other cited experiments indicate, however, e.g., _________________________________________________________ 36 Ibid 15 43 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Mills, et. al., 37 this ‘zero’ flux state of hydrogen (Mills’ hydrogen is at vuv frequency) can be obtained at any temperature, and reach high density states, yet maintain a high frequency level, because energy is conserved and 'stored' at zero. The gas tends to remain steady at zero-flux; motionless, yet at high velocity, it is an uncharged state of gas, H0 (like all the nobles, it has no electro- negativity. As a free neutron it fuses easily, as the lightest state of hydrogen; however, fusion increases its density range and chemical potential. It is an ideal gas, and an ‘ideal blackbody’ from which all matter is derived. In the vacuum tube, its expanded state, which is high frequency continues to be identified with low-long wavelength radiation; absorption or 'drop', and also in opposite terms, as extremely energetic electrons (EEE’s). UTC Theory proposes that Thomson’s measurement of the electron was close to the same magnitude as the hydrogen ion because it is a hydrogen ion; an 'uncharged' hydrogen ion. There are two states of hydrogen at the cathode and anode; the ‘glow discharges’ are H+ and H-, charged according to the charging at the plates, i.e., since the metal plates are charged-up, they attract (induct) the energies within the tube that are nearest (the Inverse Square Law applies), and the ions become ‘charged’ according to the charging at the plate to which they have been attracted. The dark spaces nearest the plates are ‘hard currents,’ behaving as solids (Mossbauer Effect), they form boundary layers in the tube that are saturation layers. The energy, overall, is grounded to the plates, and the dark spaces are where the charged plates have dumped their load; or discharged. The glow occurs from recoil from the reaction, which keeps the glow portion stimulated, or ionized, and charged according to the charge at the plates. The energies are all in a resonance condition; highly excited. The ‘glow discharge’ is a state that is stimulated emission, and the dark portions nearest the plates are saturation states, where magnetic permeability is highest and the radiation coherent and inert; high density, or energy concentrations, _________________________________________________________ “Observation of Extreme Ultraviolet Hydrogen Emission from Incandescently Heated Hydrogen Gas with Strontium that Produced an Optically Measured Power Balance that was 4000 Times the Control,” Randell L. Mills, Mark Nansteel, Ying Lu; BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ 08512 37 44 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 where the hydrogen has fused into a non-motional, non-refractive condition. The glow discharge, or charged column is stimulated to emission. The dark portions beyond the Crookes dark space and the Aston dark space in the tube is ‘drop’ radiation, or ‘fall’ that occurs from recoil, and radiation is deposited into these channels, which are decay channels. In 1913 Thomson was investigating a new gas called X3 (atomic weight 3: tritium), a polymerized form of hydrogen. He used the positive ray method to detect helium and neon because it is more sensitive than spectral analysis and provides much more definite data. There was no apparent connection between the type of gas used to fill the tubes and the appearance of the new gases (X3 line 3 in H, N, He, O, and air; Ne line 20 in H, N, O, HCl, and air). Another line often appeared corresponding to atomic weight 10; it is probably due to neon with two charges of electricity, but brighter than expected. 38 The experimental apparatus was a large glass bulb fitted with aluminum electrodes; the discharge was produced by an induction coil. Thomson described it as follows: “The positive rays for the analysis of the gases were produced in a vessel containing gases at a low pressure. I shall call this the testing vessel; the vessel in which the various processes for generating X3, were tried (the experimenting chamber) was sealed on to the testing vessel, but separated from it by a tap. Thus the pressure in the experimenting chamber was not restricted to being the same as that in the testing vessel, but might have the value which seemed most appropriate for any particular type of experiment. After these experiments were over, the tap was turned and some of the gas from the experimenting chamber let into the testing vessel; a photograph was then taken, and by comparing it with one taken before turning on the tap the new gases present in the experiment chamber could be detected.” Thomson determined that the hydrogen emitted was from the electrodes, and concluded: _________________________________________________________ 38 Thomson, J.J.: Nature 91 (2774): 333-337 (29 May 1913); "Further Applications... of Positive Rays." 67 Thomson, J.J.: Proc. Royal Soc. London 101-A (711): 290-299 (1 July 1922); "On the Analysis by Positive Rays... &c" 45 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 “These gases are present in the metal independently of the bombardment, and are liberated by the action of the kathode rays. I would also like to direct attention to the analogy between the effects just described and an everyday experience with discharge tubes─I mean the difficulty of getting these tubes free from hydrogen when the test is made by a sensitive method like that of the positive rays. Though you may heat the glass of the tube to melting point, may dry the gases by liquid air or cooled charcoal, and free the gases you let into the tube as carefully as you will from hydrogen, you will still get the hydrogen lines by the positive ray method, even when the bulb has been running several hours a day for nearly a year. The only exception is when oxygen is kept continuously running through the tube, and this, I think, is due, not to lack of liberation of hydrogen, but to the oxygen combining with the small quantity of hydrogen liberated, just as it combines with the mercury vapor and causes the disappearance of the mercury lines. I think this production of hydrogen in the tube is quite analogous to the production of X3, of helium, and of neon.” 39 Thomson’s conclusions drawn from the above experiment are extremely important. First, his conclusion that hydrogen is ‘liberated’ from the metallic properties of the plates has resulted in many presentday experiments that are proposing the same. UTC Theory proposes that the hydrogen ‘liberated’ in the Thomson experiment [and all of the others] is derived from the cathode rays. As described previously, the plates are ‘charged up,’ so the ‘charged load’ is dumped onto the cathode rays, which in turn, causes the rays to peak into a resonance condition, which UTC Theory proposes is where the hydrogen is, actually, obtained. Several important points need to be made here, which is that Thomson and Röntgen, originally, believed this phase of light, i.e., cathode and x-rays were hydrogen ions, but Thomson changed the perspective of this vacuum radiation to one of ‘particles’ when he deflected the energy, as has already been described. Our idea of an ion is that it is an excited, charged state of light, i.e., it is positively or negatively charged, and attracted to its opposite charge in a vacuum tube. UTC Theory proposes that in an open medium, or in a vacuum, energy expands and cools (Joule-Thomson Effect), it does not go down in _________________________________________________________ 39 Ibid 38 46 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 frequency as it expands (cathode rays and x-rays are the examples), but rather, expansion increases the volume and frequency of the radiation. At resonance, the energy has returned to its original, normal, steadystate condition, as an ‘uncharged’ hydrogen ion (H0), it is a free neutron; a zero-flux condition (flux is electrical resistance). As a ‘free neutron’ the hydrogen fuses easily, becoming more and more coherent and attractive as a (magnetic) force. Since it is a non-charged state of light, the neutrons are not composed of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons that cancel one another in charge. Fusion increases the density (magnetic) and frequency level of the radiation, taking it into vacuum uv, x-rays and gamma radiation. Increased magnetization, or magnetic permeability, increases coherency, which is attractive force; the wavelengths shorten, until there is little or no flux or resistance left, so the radiation cools and becomes non-refractive black light, completely inert; and an ideal gas. As it fuses, the neutrons form coherent radiations; and the energy is stored and conserved at ‘zero.’ 40 It is this radiation source from which all other mass is derived, and the reason that Thomson remarks, “ I think this production of hydrogen in the tube is quite analogous to the production of X 3, of helium, and of neon.” “There was no apparent connection between the type of gas used to fill the tubes and the appearance of the new gases (X3 line 3 in H, N, He, O, and air; Ne line 20 in H, N, O, HCl, and air). Another line often appeared corresponding to atomic weight 10; it is probably due to neon with two charges of electricity, but brighter than expected.” UTC Theory proposes that interstellar space is, primarily, composed of this state of hydrogen (H0), and the cosmology that begins in PART III, shows that the elements Thomson obtained in his tritium experiment are the beginning stages of mass formation in space from this state of hydrogen, as it has fused and then fissions toward the formation of all noble gases, as well as other states of hydrogen, i.e., HI, HII, etc.. The nobles, too, are fissioning toward the production of oxygen, primarily, with some nitrogen, as well. Interstellar space is a strong nuclear force; free neutrons that have fused, and stored as coherent radiation that encompasses a black light spectrum that begins in the ultraviolet range _________________________________________________________ “Scientific American,” July 2001 issue, “Frozen Light” by Dr. Lene Vestergaard Hau. [Dr. Hau is the Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics and Professor of Physics at Harvard University; also, head of the Atom Cooling Group at the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass]. 40 47 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 of light, extending into x-rays and gamma radiation. All matter contains aspects of these radiations; as the ‘binding energy’ of the physical substance that it forms. The black, coherent radiation becomes the space between the particles that form from it. Matter is inert, because this energy is attractive as a force (coherent) in its fused condition. Any change, or pressurization of this energy, causes it to fission, or break apart. Fission rarifies the radiation, causing it to become part of a refractive, or particle producing (due to resistance from change) process toward radioactive decay. X-rays (and gamma radiation) are energy states that Faraday would have called ‘absolute’ magnetism, which is simultaneously, perfect diamagnetism, i.e., there is no resistance, and therefore, there is no ‘refraction’ [Röntgen determined there was no refraction in x-rays, as mentioned in the quotes in the book] or ‘resistance,’ and therefore, no electro-negativity. This radiation is a vacuum; non-reflective ‘black’ light, and yet a high frequency radiation. As a state with no electronegativity, ordinary emissive hydrogen at ultraviolet frequency (HO) is an ideal gas, but not yet a noble gas. Light in this condition is an ‘ideal blackbody’; an all-absorbing, coherent radiation, absorbing because it is an highly attractive force. The strong attractive force is cancelled in an open medium, such as a vacuum or interstellar space, because the energy expands and cools at zero (Joule-Thomson Effect). Its coherency, or magnetic attraction, is its inertial characteristic. Since it is a stored, conserved energy source, it is an ‘ideal radiator’ of particles, having an infinite supply, as it emits more of the same (H0) through hysteresis loss. The nobles are among the ‘first products’ generated from the fusion of this state of hydrogen (HO) [along with electronegative states of hydrogen, HI, HII, HIV, etc., or the Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series]. 41 For this reason, the nobles, too, are states having ________________________________________________________ “Hyperfine Interaction in Quantum Hall Effect Systems,” I.D. Vagner and T. Maniv; High Magnetic Field Laboratory/ Max-Planck-Institut für Festkörperforschung, and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, BP 166X, F-38042 Grenoble CEDEX 9, FRANCE. Department of Chemistry and the Solid State Institute TECHNION-IIT, Haifa 32000, ISRAEL. http://hep.ucsd.edu/~branson/130/130b/130b_notes_prod/node101.html *** See Epilogue for Dr. Mendeleef’s comments on aether as a state of hydrogen lighter than the already known H1. Dr. Mendeleef is credited as the first to develop and publish the first (nearly) complete periodic table of elements. 41 48 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 no-electronegativity. As an ideal gas, HO should be added to the periodic table of elements *** as the first ideal gas from which all of the other nobles are derived (explained further throughout the text as a constituent of all matter. Remember, Faraday discovered diamagnetism, and proposed that it could be a fundamental constituent of matter, as well). At the zero-point phase, HO, is homogenous; in phase, and remaining in equilibrium; a perfect diamagnetic, and a perfect vacuum radiation; an ideal blackbody. The electromagnetic spectrum runs from short gamma rays at left to long radio waves at right. The narrow visual band, broken into its major colors, is in the middle. From "Astronomy! A Brief Edition," J. B. Kaler, Addison- Wesley, 1997. UTC Theory proposes that HO completes the emissive hydrogen spectra, falling past violet into ultraviolet light (dark light). The ground state energy level of the electron in a Hydrogen atom (H1 ) is calculated to be 13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet ‘photon’ of roughly 92 nm, or the vaccuum ultraviolet range of light. This theorem proposes that normal hydrogen (HO), as a free neutron is roughly 92 nm; vacuum ultraviolet, however, there is no electron, as has already been explained. 49 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Thomson had found that cathode rays travel in circular motion, and Röntgen had found that x-rays travel in a straight line. These were two of the characteristics of Faraday’s lines of force as they appear in the iron filings around the bar magnet, which are uniform, stationary lines: zero, unless moved, then they generate electrical current. Thomson: “The experiments* discussed in this paper were undertaken in the hope of gaining some information as to the nature of the Cathode Rays. The most diverse opinions are held as to these rays; according to the almost unanimous opinion of German physicists they are due to some process in the aether to which--inasmuch as in a uniform magnetic field their course is circular and not rectilinear--no phenomenon hitherto observed is analogous: another view of these rays is that, so far from being wholly aetherial, they are in fact wholly material, and that they mark the paths of particles of matter charged with negative electricity. It would seem at first sight that it ought not to be difficult to discriminate between views so different, yet experience shows that this is not the case, as amongst the physicists who have most deeply studied the subject can be found supporters of either theory.” 42 To Faraday, the circular field had ‘electrodynamic’ potential, because it was inductive, bending inward at both ends, and ‘elongating’ outward on either side of the bar magnet, but the lines of force, in general, were still purely magnetic. They, only, became electrical when they were moved. The motion of these lines ‘cut’ them, generating electrical current. This phenomenal behavior, i.e., that these magnetic lines would become electrical current when moved, and that the electrical current generated would develop a magnetic field around it, as well, showed that the two phenomena were ‘intimately,’ or closely related, but not one and the same. He had fought the idea that the magnetic lines of force were composed of particles. By the end of his career, however, he had begun to believe that the magnetic lines of force, in general, could be a state of ‘no magnetic action,’ i.e., magnetic forces only. As has already been shown, he had found early in his career that the magnetic lines of force could exist independently from electricity, or matter. On this one finding, his conflict with Andrè Ampére's _________________________________________________________ 42 J. J. Thomson, Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (1897). [facsimile from Stephen Wright, Classical Scientific Papers, Physics (Mills and Boon, 1964).] http://maple.lemoyne.edu/faculty/giunta/thomson1897.html 50 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 science stood, for close to fifty years. Faraday had made the proposition, long before the others, in his Addendum letter to his publication ‘Thoughts On Ray Vibrations,’ 43 that the ‘radiant matter’ within the medium is a factor that would replace the aether idea. Faraday had found through his experiments on diamagnetism that gases still preserved their uniqueness by not acting upon a polarized ray of light when in a magnetic field. Gases always occupied the zero position between magnetic [matter, or what later became electromagnetic radiation] and diamagnetic bodies. Neither the rarefaction nor the compression of gases had an affect upon their magnetic action; they always registered 0º. Faraday's findings in this regard become important when relating them to the Combined Gas Laws and the Joule-Thomson Effect. According to Faraday, no matter what is done with the gas, it is still a gas. The NIST graph demonstrates how the volume of gas diminishes as flux diminishes, but this is due to shortening of wavelength, which increases density, or magnetization. Faraday wrote a paper on the subject, 'On The Diamagnetic Character Of Flames and Gases,' 44 in which he demonstrates through experimental evidences that by the very nature of what they are, gases are a pure and stable energy source that play an important role in our terrestrial atmosphere, extending into space as a continuation of magnetization (see Zantedeschi Effect in Cosmology). Hydrogen (H0) is the origin of matter; a first cause; and high-energy source that begins in the interstellar medium as an already created energy source, from which all other energy and mass is derived. An ideal blackbody (different from blackbody radiation) is a hypothetical energy state that has been proposed to exist, but never found experimentally. As an uncharged, free neutron, this state of hydrogen (H0), which is at ultraviolet frequency, is not resistive, until a change _________________________________________________________ “ADDENDUM TO THOUGHTS ON RAY-VIBRATIONS,” Michael Faraday; To Richard Phillips, the editor of The Philosophical Magazine, April 15, 1846. See "Experimental Researches in Electricity," Vol. III, p.447-452, M. Faraday. Philosophical Magazine, S.3, Vol. XXVIII, N188, M. Faraday, May, 1846. Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XXIV, p.136; or Exp. Res. II. 284, 1844. 43 (see complete Addendum Letter In Epilogue). “On The Diamagnetic Character Of Flames and Gases,” by Michael Faraday; published as a letter to Mr. Richard Taylor, in the 'Philosophical Magazine,' December, 1847. 44 51 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 occurs. Its ‘zero’ condition causes it to be a ‘storage point,’ 45 as it fuses easily into a high density condition that becomes the ‘glue’ or ‘gluon’ in matter, where it not only holds particles together, it manufactures the particles, as well. As a high density state of stored hydrogen, it releases or radiates more of the same (H0), which makes it an ‘ideal radiator,’ and able to increases its volume As a high density state of stored hydrogen, it releases or radiates more of the same (H0), which makes it an ‘ideal radiator,’ and able to increases its volume and frequency in an evacuated medium into x-rays and gamma radiation. As coherent radiation, this state of ultraviolet is a vacuum; a nonparticle radiation that is completely coherent, and inert because of its high magnetic permeability (attractive as a force, causing its a standing, coherent wave, it can give the illusion that it is low-long wavelength radiation, or microwaves, because of its lack of motion. As the experiments that follow will show, this state of light is obtainable at normal temperature levels, as well as ultra-cold temperatures. It has been misidentified as a low-frequency absorptive energy in vacuum tubes, 46 and as ‘vacant’ states and ‘holes’ in particle physics, and more recently, as ‘frozen,’ 47 or ‘halted’ in plasma physics, due to its cancelled condition. Lawrence Berkeley NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS, Photo: Fig. 6.2.1. ________________________________________________________________________________________ “Scientific American,” July 2001 issue, “Frozen Light” by Dr. Lene Vestergaard Hau. [Dr. Hau is the Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics and Professor of Physics at Harvard University; also, head of the Atom Cooling Group at the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass]. 46 “Excitation Space Anisotropy, Coherence and Coherent conductivity In Hollow Cathode Discharge,” Opto-Electronics Review 11(1), 51–54 (2003); D. Zhechev* and N. Parvanova, Institute of Solid State Physics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 72 Tzarigradsko Chaussee Blvd., BG-1784 Sofia, Bulgaria. 45, 47 52 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 The Joule-Thomson Effect elaborates upon and supports William Herschel’s findings. The ‘cooling’ temperature that occurred at the violet end of the spectrum would mean that pressure within the light had decreased as the wavelengths shortened, and although expansion increases volume (and density, which also increases frequency) and heat to some extent, the gas has room in an evacuated medium to expand and cool in its equilibrium condition; its resonance state. Unless pressure is increased in some way, then, cooling and volume would increase infinitely in an open medium such as interstellar space. This being so, the whole Kelvin temperature scale is ‘off,’ due to the gas formula’s proposal that heat increases with increased volume and less pressure, which would cause an ultraviolet catastrophe to occur in an The Negative Joule-Thomson Effect is an extension of the JouleThomson Effect, and also conflicts with the ‘Combined Gas Law,’ in that ‘attractive force’ is pressure; however, in an evacuated medium, the attractive forces would become latent, because the gas expands and cools in its resonance condition. Attractive forces become evident only when the gas is compressed, or pressurized (or through fusion, as UTC Theory proposes). The attractive force is present as high magnetic permeability, but as the gas expands and cools, it maintains its equilibrium state at zero. As pressure is increased using the Combined Gas Law, or Kelvin scale, volume decreases, instead of increasing upon expansion, as the JouleThomson Effects (positive and negative) propose. Decreasing volume, according to the Kelvin scale, however, increases pressure, causing the temperature to lower, and the gas to contract. The Remy, et. al. 48 experiment, shown below, demonstrates that this simply does not happen under normal conditions. In fact, present-day ultra-cold experiments are demonstrating that atoms remain very active and difficult to contain, unless extreme measures are implemented, e.g. radio-frequency lasers and magnetic traps. Rayleigh’s original formula (violet catastrophe) predicted that the intensity of light would approach infinity as the wavelength approached zero. Instead of causing a ‘heat problem,’ however, the energy will expand and cool in its resonance condition. In other words, as the experiments had shown, no ultraviolet catastrophe’ occurs. Energy _________________________________________________________ 48 Ibid 15 53 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 does not have to be taken to -273º K. to obtain ‘zero-effect,’ or a zeroflux state, 49 as the many experiments shown throughout this theorem will indicate. Zero’ state currents and zero state polarity have been found to exist in vacuum by Tatsuta and Katoh 50 and Steinke and Lindmayer. 51 A zerostate ultraviolet has, also, been found in ultra-cold hydrogen BoseEinstein Condensate experiments (Fried, et. al. 52 and Greytak, et. al. 53), shown later, as a very sharp ‘point,’ or peak that ‘replenishes’ a broadened current. The vacuum effects of normal hydrogen are comparatively the same as those obtained in Bose-Einstein Condensate experiments. Kurunczi and Becker 54 obtained discharge plasmas in hollow cathode configurations with hole sizes of 0.1 – 0.25 mm in pure high pressure Ne and He (up to atmospheric pressure), and found them to be efficient sources of Ne2 and He2 excimer radiation. Emission spectroscopy revealed strong emissions which were identified as the second and first continua of respectively the Ne2 excimer (75 – 88 nm) and the He2 excimer (60 – 90 nm). Admixtures of small amounts of H2 (up to at most 0.1%) to Ne resulted in suppression of the excimer radiation and the emission of intense, monochromatic H Lyman-and Lyman_________________________________________________________ 49 Ibid 45 Tatsuta, H. and Katoh, K., “Zero-current and Polarity-Effect Of Ionization Chambers,” Journal Article 4840824, J. At. Energy Soc., Japan; Vol: 3, Pages: 602-7; Japan Atomic Energy Research Inst., Tokyo. 51 “Differences in Current Zero Behavior between Bipolar and Quadrupolar AMF Contacts,” Kathrin Steinke and Manfred Lindmayer, XXth International Symposium On Discharges and Electrical Insulation In Vacuum EIT held in Ecole d'Ingénieurs de Tours, TOURS, FRANCE - June 30 - July 5, 2002; Institut für Hochspannungstechnik und Elektrische Energieanlagen Technische Universität Braunschweig Schleinitzstraße 23A, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany. 50 52 53 Ibid Ibid 26 27 . “VACUUM ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROSCOPY OF MICROHOLLOW CATHODE DISCHARGE PLASMAS,” Peter F. Kurunczi and Kurt H. Becker; Physics Department, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA. 54 54 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 radiation at 121.6 nm and 102.5 nm, respectively. High-pressure He discharge plasmas with trace amounts of H2, N2, and O2 also results in the emission of monochromatic atomic H, N, and O lines in the range from 95 – 125 nm in addition to the He2 excimer radiation. The sources of these intense monochromatic atomic line emissions are believed to be near resonant energy transfer processes between the molecular gases and the rare gas excimers and/or metastables generated in the discharge plasma. In the Remy, et. al. 55 experiment EEE’s were obtained at the cathode regions, in the Crookes Dark Space of the vacuum tube. The group proposes that in the expansion process, the abnormal glow regime occupies the entire tube. In the experiment, Argon gas was expanded in a pulsed slit discharge nozzle (PDN); a device developed in their laboratory to generate molecular ions which were conducive to an astrophysically relevant environment (see photo, below). ________________________________________________________________ 55 Ibid 15 55 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 56 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Free cold molecular ions were formed through soft (Penning) ionization of the neutral precursor molecules seeded in a supersonic free jet, and probed with cavity ring down spectroscopy. The pulsed discharge nozzle Confinement of the discharge to a small upstream region of the expansion leads to efficient rotational cooling of the ions and radicals generated in the plasma [1, 2, 6]. At typical backing pressure of Ar (760 Torr), the steep pressure gradient within the expansion leads to a pressure of 2 Torr near the cathode, 1.5mm from the nozzle. The resulting conditions were characterized by a strong pressure gradient in a short from 500 to 2 Torr over the 1.5mm inter-electrode distance). (PDN) combines an intense slit jet configuration with two knife-edge electrodes that produce a discharge in the stream of the planar expansion. In this configuration, an abnormal glow plasma is generated after expansion of the Ar gas. The group ascertains that the plasma generated in the PDN source was characterized as an intense glow discharge in the abnormal regime, and that its structure is reduced to a ‘negative glow’ and to ‘dark zones’ near the electrodes. The group proposes that there are two factors that are, primarily, responsible for the formation of an abnormal glow discharge in the plasma: the pressure regime and the short (d = 1.5 mm) inter-electrode distance. There is a strong discharge pressure gradient in the free jet that ranges from 400–500 Torr at the anode to about 2–3 Torr at the cathode. Although the cathode dark space and negative glow seem to be unaffected by this environment, the positive column, the Faraday dark space, the Aston zone, the cathode layer and the anode glow all disappear. This only leaves the negative glow and dark spaces between the two electrodes [13]. The glow is blue, red and green in the case of Ar, Ne and He, respectively, indicating the sole presence of a negative glow preceded by a Crookes (dark) zone where electrons are accelerated [14]. 57 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 The group depicts the glow structure at three representative pressure regimes: (i) at a high-pressure regime (400 Torr corresponds to the pressure 0.06mm downstream), (ii) at an average pressure (10 Torr) that corresponds to the pressure at mid distance in between the electrodes (0.75mm downstream) and (iii) at a low pressure regime (around 2–3 Torr) that corresponds to the pressure at the cathode (1.5mm downstream). The characteristics of the discharge features that are associated with each of these pressure regimes are calculated (in the diagram shown in figure 4, below, and as illustrated in figures 3(b)–(d): 58 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 In summary, the Remy, et. al. 56 group proposes that an abnormal glow discharge is generated by the PDN source. The very short distance between the electrodes (1.5 mm) combined to the nature of the expanded carrier gas lead to a discharge where only two physical zones are expected to be present, namely, the Crookes dark zone and the negative glow. The group reports that the Crookes dark space is not completely dark, but it is much less luminous than the negative glow. In the abnormal glow regime, the glow extends over the entire surface of the cathode. Most of the potential difference between the two electrodes is concentrated in the Crookes dark zone, owing to the space charge of the positive ions. The negative glow is plasma (i.e. virtually a field-free space) and electrons and positive ions are ____________________________________________________________ 56 Ibid 15 59 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 present in approximately the same number per cubic centimetre. The difference between the two electrodes is concentrated in the Crookes dark zone, owing to the space charge of the positive ions. The negative glow is plasma (i.e. virtually a field-free space) and electrons and positive ions are itself has to extract electrons from the cathode. These primary electrons generate positive Ar ions along their path in the glow region. Argon ions will in turn strike the cathode and release secondary electrons. The strong electric field in the Crookes dark space region causes the major part of the electrons’ path to be straight across the dark space along the field lines. The mean free path of the Ar atoms near the cathode (pressure close to a few Torr) is 5mm whereas the mean free path of the electrons in the same region is 31 mm. The group proposes that some of the electrons [from the cathode and Crookes dark space region] enter the negative glow with high velocities. There, they lose their energies in collisions producing a mixture of ionized and metastable Ar atoms. This excitation is responsible for the negative glow. The electrons continue on their way towards the anode with lower velocities and make the anode side of the negative glow appear darker. UTC Theory proposes that the EEE’s obtained in the Crookes dark space in the Remy, et. al. experiment is the ‘binding’ energy of the whole reaction; the EEE’s are hydrogen neutrons that have ‘stored’ in the Crookes region, where the energy is high, yet, conserved at zero; it is hydrogen in its purest form. The Crookes dark space, which the group proposes is a ‘dark’ zone where electrons are accelerated,’ is resonance radiation, i.e., a point where the radiation is coherent and stationary at zero flux. The Universal Theory Of Contiguity proposes that the Crookes dark space is an extenuation of the spectra of emissive hydrogen, where the energy is at resonance, which is ultraviolet frequency and beyond, into vacuum level radiation as the hydrogen begins to fuse at zero. The Crookes dark space in the Remy, et. al. experiment dominated the tube when the pressure was low, which allowed the argon to expand, and give off (release) energy, taking the volume of gas to peak resonance. As the pressure was increased in the tube, the ‘dark space’ radiation experienced destructive interference (refraction), breaking the resonant ‘fissile’ material apart, and particles were produced through resistances that occurred throughout the tube. Since Argon was put into the tube, Argon and its constituent parts were the whole potential, and the radioactive decay products that resulted were the constituent parts of Argon, or lighter ideal gases; Ne and He. 60 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 The Remy, et. al. 57 group has proposed that there is ‘cathode voltage potential difference across the dark space is large because the discharge fall,’ which is associate with the two major zones (the Crookes dark space and the negative glow) in the plasma. UTC Theory proposes that the ‘cathode voltage fall,’ reported by the group is not a depletion of frequency, or energy, but rather, the expansion process has increased the frequency and energy level throughout the tube, through emission. As the radiation reaches the zero-point phase, which is resonance, the flux, too, is at zero, which gives the illusion of ‘fall.’ The group proposal that the ‘Crookes dark space is not completely dark, but it is much less luminous than the negative glow,’ is due to zero-flux; the light although in a high-energy phase is non-refractive black light. In the abnormal glow regime, the glow extends over the entire surface of the cathode, because the ‘darker’ light is keeping the ‘abnormal glow,’ which is lower energy, in a stimulated condition. The group is proposing that most of the potential difference between the two electrodes is concentrated in the Crookes dark zone, [which is] ‘owing to the ‘space charge of the positive ions.’ ‘The negative glow is plasma (i.e. virtually a field-free space) and electrons and positive ions are present in approximately the same number per cubic centimetre. [This epitomizes the definition of an ‘ideal gas’].’ The group proposes that after producing the excitation that is generating the ‘negative flow plasma, the electrons continue on their way towards the anode with lower velocities, making the anode side of the negative glow appear darker, and, in particular, not a source of ionization.’ UTC theory proposes that the anode is a decay channel, a plasma and ideal gas state that is ground-state hydrogen. The group has proposed that the anode sheath is essentially collisionless. UTC Theory proposes that this ‘collisionless sheath’ is a stationary ‘wave,’ also, non-refractive black light, but at microwave frequency. _________________________________________________________ 57 Ibid 15 61 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 The colors blue, red and green that appeared in the case of Ar, Ne and He, respectively, within the plasma obtained in the Remy, et. al. 58 experiment, are colors that fall within the spectra of emissive hydrogen (HO). These spectral colors were obtained as the tube underwent pressurization. The spectral colors, as the group reports, fall within the microwave range of light. As the Argon was expanded; however, the EEE’s obtained at the cathode and Crookes dark space region (which were not measured in the experiment), UTC Theory proposes, have to fall within the ultraviolet range and above. Mizuno, et. al. 59 observed anomalous hydrogen and oxygen gas generation during plasma electrolysis [of the Crookes dark space]. The group proposes that the generation of hydrogen exceeds Faraday’s law, ascertaining that the ‘non-Faradic’ generation of hydrogen gas is sometimes 80 times higher than the gas obtained from normal electrolysis, as it is continuously observed to increase when the conditions such as temperature, current density, input voltage and ________________________________________________________________________________________ 58 Ibid 15 59 “ Generation of Heat and Products During Plasma Electrolysis,” Presented at Tenth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2003. Cambridge, MA: LENR-CANR.org. Another version published by World Scientific, Inc (2003) in the official Proceedings of the conference; Tadahiko Mizuno, T., T. Ohmori, and T. Akimoto, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku Kita-13 Nishi-8, Sapporo 0608628, Japan 62 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 electrode surface are suitable. The ratio of the hydrogen gases released from the cathode is exactly [the] same as the value indicated by the current[s], shown in the chart, below: In 1961, Tatsuta and Katoh 60 obtained a zero-current and zero polarity effect in ionization chambers. The experimenters propose that the zerocurrent is produced from the contact potential difference between two electrodes. For the latter [zero polarity], they found that the zerocurrent of the output electrical connector makes it most dominant under ordinary conditions; however, at lower pressures (<1 mmHg), the Taylor-Greening Effect becomes effective. Oro, et. al.61 found that frequency increases with increasing plasma _______________________________________________________________________________________ 60 Ibid 50 “A Debris-Free. Plasma Radiation. Source for Extreme. Ultraviolet. Lithography,” D. M. Oró, R. D. Fulton, D. V. Morgan (P-22), J. C. Goldstein, M. E. Jones (XPA), B. C. Carlsten, J.M. Kinross-Wright, D. C. Nguyen, S. J. Russell (LANSCE-9), Chapter Two. Physics Division 46 Progress Report 1995–1996 61 63 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 electron density. When the inverse of the plasma frequency equals the bunch length, or, equivalently, when a critical electron-density is reached, the plasma responds collectively to the next bunch and slows the bunch, transferring energy to the background plasma. At the XXth International Symposium On Discharges and Electrical Insulation In Vacuum EIT held in Ecole d'Ingénieurs de Tours, TOURS, FRANCE - June 30 - July 5, 2002, Steinke and Lindmayer 62 have reported that the ‘after current zero’ can be explained with a simplified post-arc model [8].* The group ascertains that before and at current zero the plasma between the electrodes is neutral. Activated through the special conditions in the cathode-spots electrons and ions both move toward the anode. At current zero the polarity of the electrodes changes. It is assumed that the ions due to their inertia keep their original speed (104 m/s [9], 8 X 103 m/s [10]) and direction for the first moment. While the post-arc current rises with opposite polarity, electrons become slower and finally their speed becomes zero [11]. At this moment ti (fig. 1) the whole post-arc current is carried by the ions. It is i = e·A·Z·ni·vi (1) with i = current, e = elementary charge, A = discharge area, Z = mean ion charge state (average 1.8), ni = ion density, vi = ion velocity. The post-arc current peak is in close neighborhood to this point. Therefore this current is a direct measure for the product ni·vi. Until ti the electron and ion densities are equal, and the voltage across the gap is zero (fig. 1), as shown below: _______________________________________________________________________________________ 62 Ibid 51 *[ ] bracketed numbers are from Steinke-Lindmayer publication to cite their references supporting their comments. 64 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 From this time on the electrons reverse and move to the new anode. In front of the new cathode a positive space charge sheath of thickness s grows and takes up the whole transient recovery voltage (TRV). The post-arc current density j of the post-arc period beginning with ti can be described by the following equation: j = ni·Z·e·(vi+ds/dt) (2) j current density, ni – ion density at the edge between sheath and neutral plasma, e – elementary charge, vi – ion velocity, s – sheath thickness. The first term is due to the directed ion motion with vi from the old cathode towards the new cathode. With a ion velocity of approximately 104 m/s this term disappears after about 1 s for a 1 cm gap. The second term ds/dt characterizes the expansion of the positive space charge sheath. It can be shown that under certain simplifications the integral over the post-arc current (= post-arc charge) is a direct measure for the total residual charge present in the contact gap at the moment of current zero [10, 13]. Therefore both the post-arc current peak and the post arc charge are a direct indication of the residual charge in the gap at current zero. (UTC theory proposes that at the point where the experimenter’s zerostate ‘electrons’ occur, the current has entered a phase of coherent radiation, where the ‘electrons,’ and they are only referred to as electrons, because the experimenters refer to this state as such, however, this state of light is non-refractive, or resistive. UTC theory proposes that this is a peak resonance condition, and the ‘electrons’ are a binding energy, and since they are in a confined medium, they recoil and become superconducting-generating the post-arc current). The group reports that at current zero the residual flux density of the quadrupolar contacts is with 530 mT by a factor of 2.2 higher than that of the bipolar system. (240 mT). The damping time constant is also much higher for the quadrupolar contact system (3,5 ms) than for the bipolar contact system (1,7 ms) [7]. The residual AMF after current zero is caused by eddy currents,** mainly in the contact plates. The main interest is to design a contact geometry where the generated axial magnetic field spreads the thermal stress from the vacuum arc over a contact plate area as evenly as possible [12]. With both the quadrupolar and the bipolar AMF contact system the effective area (areas of AMF 65 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 4 mT/kA [12]) is about 75% of the electrode area [7]. Fig. 6, below, depicts post-arc current traces at 50 and 60 k ARMS from several individual measurements to demonstrate the scatter. Though both polarities were used, the results are plotted together in the same direction. A polarity influence could not be found. A large scattering range is an indication that the limit of breaking capability is being reached [2]. Both for 50 and 60 kA the scatter in post-arc currents of the quadrupolar contact system is larger than for the bipolar contact system. Also the measured currents of the quadrupolar contact system reach a higher post-arc current peak, their duration is longer, and consequently their post-arc charge is higher. These facts are underlined by fig. 7, below, where the ultraviolet characteristic quantities “post-arc current peak” and “post-arc charge” _________________________________________________________ **eddy currents enter the picture, again, in the interstellar medium, which UTC theory proposes is a product derived from vacuum radiation. 66 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 are summarized for all investigated arc currents between 30 and 60 kA. The quadrupolar system clearly exhibits higher current and charge values as well as larger scatter, the latter especially under 50 and 60 kA conditions. There is also a very clear correlation between failures and the post arc peak and charge, respectively. Though the failure events always occur definitely after the visible post-arc currents have ceased, the cases of failures are always associated with the highest and longest post-arc currents prior to them. The behavioral effects of zero current and zero polarity are comparable to those obtained in Bose-Einstein Condensate experiments. More particularly, the few experiments that have been performed with hydrogen (Fried, et. al.63 and Greytak, et. al. 64 ), where zero-state ultraviolet has been obtained. The groups have ascertained that their zero-state ultraviolet is a standing wave, which is a normal state of ultraviolet, and a normal state of hydrogen. They have categorized this ________________________________________________________________________________________ 63 64 Ibid Ibid 26 27 67 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 state of ultraviolet to be ‘Doppler-sensitive.’ The ‘Doppler-sensitive’ portion replenishes a conjunctive, broadened ‘Doppler-free’ condensate in the microwave range of light, which the group reports poses as an [energy] ‘gap’ that exists between the two components. Greytak, et. al. (2000) 65 proposed that, “in our system 10 9 atoms per second are being condensed out of the normal component.” The group suggests that “efficient coupling of these atoms into a coherent beam (instead of losing them from the trap) could have broad technological implications.” Fried, et. al. 66 reported that when the ‘Doppler-free’ condensate (broadened microwave component) decays rapidly by dipolar relaxation, it is simultaneously replenished by the normal gas carried in the 'Doppler-sensitive' component [zero-state ultraviolet]. The group proposes that the zero-state component is a standing wave of normal ultraviolet, and that the ‘narrowed spectrum’ of the zero-state ultraviolet is an indication of a reduction in density, and therefore, there is less intensity, or an indication that there is a reduction in condensate population. The lifetime is observed to be about 5s. The group reports that the ‘doper-sensitive,’ or zero-state ultraviolet, is a factor derived from that absorption of counter-propagating photons, and the ‘Dopplerbroadened’ portion from co-propagating photons. _________________________________________________________ 65 Ibid 26 66 Ibid 27 68 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 The ‘zero’ state currents obtained in the vacuum experiments are comparatively the same as in the BEC experiments. UTC theory proposes that the zero-state ultraviolet obtained is the ‘coherent beam’ that the BEC group proposes could be obtained through ‘efficient coupling’ methods, albeit, some of it was lost. UTC theory proposes that the hydrogen shown in this experiment at ultraviolet frequency is the zero-point state of hydrogen; it is ordinary emissive hydrogen (HO), an uncharged ion, or free neutron. Hydrogen at its zero-point phase is in its resonance state, which is its normal, steady-state; a state of no resistivity, which makes it a perfect diamagnetic, a super-conducting energy phase. UTC theory proposes that in the Greytak, et. al. and the Fried, et. al. experiments, the zero-point state of hydrogen obtained, was the result of co-propagating photons, rather than from counterpropagating photons, which the group has proposed. The group has surmised that their ‘counter-propagating photons’ are in unison. The zero-state hydrogen (HO) is what a ‘photon’ is proposed to be: zero. If there is any further ‘crowding’ of the hydrogen at this level, which is ‘pinch’ effect, fusion begins to occur, because there is no resistance, which causes the hydrogen to store and conserve more of the same energy (HO) easily, reaching high vacuum uv levels as a result. The ultraviolet frequency has been maintained in both of these experiments, because vacuum ultraviolet laser (243 nm) was used. In both of the hydrogen BEC experiments, the zero state ultraviolet (H O) obtained ‘replenished’ the broadened portion. This conserved energy source has diminished only in volume in the experiments, because it has ‘converted,’ or diminished toward the production of the ‘broadened’ portion, yet maintains its frequency level. The London penetration depth, which refers to the related to the density of superconducting ‘electrons’ in the material [at the surface, or where the zero state uv exists in the hydrogen BEC experiments; along the surface where ‘pinch effect,’ or fusion is occurring]. The zero state uv in the BEC experiments is the ‘binding energy,’ which is an independent characteristic, or ‘coherence length’ that is related to the Fermi velocity for the broadened material and the energy gap associated with the condensation of the superconducting ‘zero’ state uv. As the normal hydrogen in the ‘Doppler-sensitive,’ zero state portion converts to, or ‘replenishes,’ the broadened component, the ‘coherent beam’ of ultraviolet has narrowed. The frequency; however, has remained in tact as ultraviolet. 69 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Hijmans, et. al. 67 have found that “the normal gas [zero-state uv] acts as a large reservoir that continually replenishes the condensate [the broadened Doppler-free component] as atoms are lost through dipolar relaxation. This replenishment dramatically increases the apparent lifetime of the condensate.” Brandt, et. al. 68 propose that there is a “finite temperature gluon selfenergy in a class of temporal gauges.” The group has taken the approach which relates thermal Green functions to forward scattering amplitudes of on-shell thermal particles in the calculation of the ‘gluon self-energy,’ which they propose is a class of temporal gauges. The exact self-energy of the gluon is transverse at finite temperature to all orders. (Except for the Feynman gauge, where the transversality has been verified only to one loop order, this property is not valid in the class of covariant gauges). The group proposes that logarithmic contributions have the same structure as the “ultraviolet pole,” terms which occur at zero temperature. The forward scattering amplitude associated with the thermal gluon self-energy has been obtained, to one-loop order, using the approximation which consists in neglecting the contributions from the prescription poles. The relation between the dimensionally regularized zero temperature gluon self-energy [ultraviolet] and the in T contribution, given in Eq. (25), is relevant to explain the cancellation of the in (−k2 ) terms between the zero temperature and the temperature dependent parts of the gluon selfenergy. Akis, et. al. 69 have given ‘numerical simulations of open quantum dots’ that reproduce ‘zero field resistance peaks’ that have been observed experimentally. The group has ascertained, mathematically, ________________________________________________________ 67 T. W. Hijmans, Y. Kagan, G. V. Shlyapnikov, and J. T. M. Walraven, Phys. Rev. B 48, 12886 (1993)]. 68 “Finite temperature gluon self-energy in a class of temporal gauges,” Phys. Rev. D61, 125014 (July 9, 2004); F. T. Brandt, J. Frenkel and F. R. Machado; Instituto de F´ısica, Universidade de S˜ao Paulo, S˜ao Paulo, SP 05315-970, BRAZIL 69 “Zero field magnetoresistance peaks in Open Quantum Dots: Weak Localization Or A Fundamental Property?”; 1999 J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 11 4657-4664, R Akis, D. Vasileska, D. K. Ferry and J. P. Bird, Center For Solid State Electronics Research, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5706, USA. 70 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 that this phenomena, which has been attributed to weak localization in the past, can have a different origin, involving conductance resonances that reflect the underlying spectrum of light. UTC theory proposes that vacuum ultraviolet is a state that exists in the open environment of interstellar space, where hydrogen has fused at resonance into coherent radiation that is behaving as a ‘solid,’ explained below. This phase of light, which is high as a energy source extends into x-rays and gamma radiation (and possibly Cherenkov and higher). Expansion in the open medium of interstellar space increases magnetic permeability to maximum, which results in a radiation that is a coherent, cancelled wave; the vacuum level ultraviolet. When light exists in this coherent state it is a perfect diamagnetic (we already know that hydrogen is diamagnetic, and collectively, as it exists in space, it is a perfect diamagnetic state; zero, which is a state of no-resistance. This makes it a super-conducting energy source. In this condition, light is non-refractive black light; a state that is also perfect magnetism. UTC theory proposes that this state of light is an ideal blackbody; allabsorbing, because it is attractive as a force attractive (the reason that the energy is coherent) due to its high magnetic permeability, which makes it inert, and perfectly black at all wavelengths. Expansion in the interstellar medium causes it to maintain its zero state, or cancelled condition, to infinitesimal continuity. In an ‘open’ environment density, or volume increase, can reach extremely high levels without effect, because the expansion has caused the energy to maintain its cancelled condition, and energy [and mass] are conserved, or stored at zero. Although the internal pressure is positive and the Joule coefficient negative, since the gas has cooled, it heats only on compression in a constant energy due to the attractive forces at work (Negative JouleThomson Effect). In the open interstellar medium, ordinary emissive hydrogen (H0) has increased in nuclear capacity due to its infinite expansion, which has increased its volume. In general, gamma rays are produced by nuclear transitions from an unstable high-energy state to a low-energy state. The Universal Theory Of Contiguity (UTC theory) proposes that the gamma ray bursts in the interstellar medium are a result of this transitional occurrence, where the vacuum ultraviolet experiences hysteresis loss (magnetic), and the excess energy emitted from the action forms a decay channel; a plasma of high density inert gases, or 71 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 noble gases. The interstellar radiation is behaving as a solid, and the Mossbauer Effect is occurring, where the energy of the emitted gamma rays corresponds to the energy of the nuclear transition (possibly up to Cherenov levels) minus an amount of energy that is lost through recoil (nobles/microwaves) toward the production of the emitting atoms. If the lost "recoil energy" is small compared with the energy linewidth of the nuclear transition, then the gamma ray energy still corresponds to the energy of the nuclear transition and the gamma ray can be absorbed by another atom of the same type as the first (the surrounding ultraviolet and higher to x-rays and beyond). Since the interstellar medium is a continuum radiation, this type of recoil-free absorption is occurring on a grand scale. Such emission and subsequent absorption is called resonance. Mao, et. al. 70 report that the gamma ray burst (GRB) spectrum in interstellar space is non-thermal, yet, in most cases there is a strong power law high-energy tail extending to a few GeV, and a particular high-energy tail up to 18 GeV has been reported in GRB940217.”) The radiation emitted by such an ideal blackbody when heated is blackbody radiation. A perfect blackbody has an emissivity of unity. The higher radiation (ideal blackbody) emits its excess energy as more hydrogen through hysteresis loss, and since it is more of the same, the volume of hydrogen gas is continuously replenished. As the emitted hydrogen experiences pressure from all sides (due to the high magnetization of the higher radiation), the newly emitted radiation, at first, becomes refractive, or resistive to the action, ** and the plasma of _________________________________________________________ “Vacuum discharge as a possible source of gamma-ray bursts,” G. Mao, S. Chiba, Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute Tokai, Naka, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan, W. Greiner Institut f¨ur Theoretische Physik der J. W. GoetheUniversit¨at Postfach 11 19 32, D-60054 Frankfurt am Main, Germany K. Oyamatsu Faculty of Studies on Contemporary Society Aichi Shukutoku University 9 Katahira, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1197, Japan (April 12, 2004). **It appears that J. J. Thomson obtained his q/m ratio results for this reason, i.e., his minute ‘electrical charges’ were small fluxes, or the scintillations that are produced from pressures that occur with this state of hydrogen. This would mean that his son, George Pagett Thomson, was also correct in his ‘wave’ hypothesis, with a small exception, the wave is stationary, i.e., it is not waving. It is so magnetic that it is a strong, coherent force and radiation that is, virtually, non-motional. Emery is ‘stored,’ or conserved in this condition. 70 72 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 gas emitted breaks apart, or fissions, primarily, into noble gases, and the nobles fission into He2 and oxygen, primarily, along with HI, HII, etc.71 The nobles have the potential to be either ‘raised and matched’ to the higher vacuum level uv (or higher), or undergo a continued radioactive decay cycle as pressure builds toward the production of macroscopic mass. Mills, et. al. 72 report that extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy was recorded on microwave discharges of helium with 2% hydrogen. The group recorded EUV spectra of helium-hydrogen mixtures maintained in a novel series of peaks and are open to suggestions.** These lines matched transitions to fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen (n = 1/p = 1/integer replaces the well known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states). Evidence of excimer emission was also observed. An extremely high hydrogen-atom temperature of 180 – 210 eV was observed with the presence of helium ion catalyst only with the presence of helium ion catalyst only with hydrogen present. Similarly, the average electron temperature for _________________________________________________________ “Production Of Slow Electrons And Positive Ions In He, Ne, Ar, H2, N2, O2 and CO By Energetic Helium Ions,” (1963 Jan. 01) OSTI 4659825, TID-19137; Martin, D. W.; Langley; R. A.; Hooper, J. W.; Harmer, D. S.; McDaniel, E. W.; Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta. 72 “Spectroscopic study of unique line broadening and inversion in low pressure microwave generated water plasmas,” International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 27, pg. 967 (2002); R. L. Mills, P. C. Ray, R. M. Mayo, M. Nansteel, B. Dhandapani, BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ 0851; Jonathan Phillips, University of New Mexico, Dept. of Chemical and Nuclear Engineering, 203 Farris Engineering, Albuquerque, NM 87131(2002). ** UTC Theory proposes that the low pressure in the Evenson cavity allowed room for expansion, and expansion increased magnetization, or coherence of the radiations, which is also an increase in frequency. The hydrogen, in its normal state is ultraviolet, and the more energetic of the two gases. The helium was pulse-amplified to the same resonance level as the hydrogen, or to ultraviolet frequency, where the two radiations [which are elements] were in phase. At this point, the helium converts to hydrogen, and fusion began to occur, taking the radiation into vacuum level uv frequency as the strong, attractive forces take over, where all resistance is nil, and therefore, all oscillations are nil. This vacuum state is a perfect diamagnetic condition; a super-conducting state, having the potential to become particle producing again, if pressure is increased. 71 73 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 helium-hydrogen plasma was high, 28,000 K, compared to 6800 K for helium alone. The intensity of the emission of the He II peak at 30.4 nm relative to that of the He I peak at 58.4 nm increased with the addition of 5% hydrogen. The effect was dependent on the microwave field which increased the amount of He+ in both cases. Similarly, hydrogen plasmas became more energetic when helium was added as indicated by the intensification of the Lyman and Balmer emission. The results showed the effect of the presence of He+ with atomic hydrogen and demonstrated the role of He+ as a catalyst. Using water bath calorimetry, excess power was observed from the helium-hydrogen plasma compared to control krypton plasma. For a 8.1 W input, the thermal output power of the helium-hydrogen plasma was measured to be 30.0 W corresponding to 21.9 W of excess power in 3 cm3. The excess power density and energy balances were high, 7.3 W / cm3 and 2.9 X 104 kJ / mole H2 , respectively. The results indicate that a new power source based on the catalysis of atomic hydrogen is not only possible, but is it competitive with gas turbine combustion. Direct plasma to electric power conversion is possible. At the load matching condition of 250 W, the direct plasmadynamic conversion (PDC) of open circuit voltages of 21.8 V and 1.87 W of electrical power were demonstrated with a 0.125 in diameter by 3/4 in long plasmadynamic electrode and a 140 G applied field corresponding to an extracted power density of 3.6 W/cm3 and an efficiency of 42% [62]. Mills, et. al. 73 have reported that they have observed intense extreme ultraviolet EUV) emission from incandescently heated atomic hydrogen and atomized strontium. These intense EUV emissions were observed at low temperatures (e.g. » 103 K ) from atomic hydrogen and certain atomized elements or certain gaseous ions which ionize at integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV [1-5]. A plasma formed at a cell voltage of about 250 volts in the cell with hydrogen alone and in the cell with hydrogen and sodium; whereas, a plasma formed in the strontium cell at the extremely low voltage of about 2 volts. _________________________________________________________ 73 “ Observation of Extreme Ultraviolet Hydrogen Emission from Incandescently Heated Hydrogen Gas with Strontium that Produced an Optically Measured Power Balance that was 4000 Times the Control,” Randell L. Mills, Mark Nansteel, Ying Lu; BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ 08512 74 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 UTC theory proposes that the state obtained by Mills, et. al., as shown in the graph above, is just one of the many examples that serve to show that when hydrogen is in its resonance state, it ‘zeroes’ out into a standing; coherent wave of same. UTC theory proposes that hydrogen in this condition is in its purest form; it has fused, and maintains equilibrium at vacuum level, where energy is conserved, or stored. Chin, et. al., 74 obtained vacuum uv in BEC, and proposed that the condensate obtained is near an ideal gas state (shown in the photo, below). UTC theory proposes that, like the Greytak, et. al. 76 and Fried, et. al. 75 hydrogen BEC experiments, shown later, this ‘zero’ condition is where the energy has transformed into a pure hydrogen condition ( HO), and fused, because it is neutral, and virtually, motionless. The greater the fusion, the higher the frequency of the radiation becomes. If any motion or pressure is imposed upon this state of matter (dark, nonrefractive black light), particles are produced, due to the strain imposed. _________________________________________________________ “Amplification of Local Instabilities in a Bose-Einstein Condensate with Attractive Interactions,” Phys. Rev. Letters, Vol. 90, No. l6, ( 2003 24 April) J. K. Chin, J.M. Vogels,* and W. Ketterle, Department of Physics, MIT-Harvard Center for Ultracold Atoms, and Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139. 74 75 76 Ibid 27 Ibid 26 75 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 Increased pressure begins a radioactive decay cycle toward the production of elements. Mills, et. al. 77 obtained plasma that they call a ‘resonant transfer (rt) plasma,’ which formed with a low field (1 V cm-1), at low temperatures (e.g. ≈ 103 K), from atomic hydrogen generated at a tungsten filament and strontium which was vaporized by heating the metal. Strong vacuum ultraviolet emission was observed that increased with the addition of argon, but not when sodium, magnesium or barium replaced strontium or with hydrogen, argon or strontium alone. Characteristic strontium and argon emission was observed which supported a resonant-energy-transfer mechanism. Significant Balmerα line broadening corresponding to an average hydrogen atom temperature of 14, 24, and 23-45 eV was observed for strontium and argon-strontium _________________________________________________________ “Spectroscopic Identification of Transitions of Fractional Rydberg States of Atomic Hydrogen,” Journal of Molecular Structure 643, 43, (2002); R. L. Mills, P. Ray, B. Dhandapani, M. Nansteel, X. Chen, J. He. 77 76 Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998 rt plasmas and discharges of strontium-hydrogen, helium-hydrogen, argon-hydrogen, strontium-helium-hydrogen and strontium-argonhydrogen, respectively, compared to ≈ 3 eV for pure hydrogen, krypton-hydrogen, xenon-hydrogen and magnesium-hydrogen. To achieve that same optically measured light output power, hydrogensodium, hydrogen-magnesium and hydrogen-barium mixtures required 4000, 7000 and 6500 times the power of the hydrogen-strontium mixture, respectively, and the addition of argon increased these ratios by a factor of about two. A glow discharge plasma formed for hydrogen-strontium mixtures at an extremely low voltage of about 2 V compared to 250 V for hydrogen alone and sodium-hydrogen mixtures, and 140-150 V for hydrogen-magnesium and hydrogenbarium mixtures. As it exists in the interstellar medium, H0 can remain in phase at resonance, as a homogenous ‘fissile’ material to infinitesimal continuity. It is all-absorbing, because any radiation that nears its magnitude is transformed by it, i.e., energy is raised and matched to its magnitude. Its residual radiation, as explained in the overall theorem, can take one of two courses; it can form a radioactive decay channel toward mass production, as it fissions, or breaks apart toward particle production and radioactive decay, or it can be raised to the higher radiation level, where it maintains its high frequency level. Chen, et. al. 78, obtained a “zero-dimensional steady-state model of low-pressure (2-60 Torr) microwave-generated hydrogen plasma.” The group estimated that for low-pressure plasmas their pressure, including the fact that gas temperature rises steeply at pressures in excess of 15 Torr. This results from the fact that at low pressures a very large fraction of the input power is transmitted by the ‘electrons’** to the molecular vibration modes, such that . _________________________________________________________ “Modelling The Discharge Region Of A Microwave Generated Hydrogen Plasma,” (1999) J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 32 688-698; Chen, Chun-Ku; Wei, TaChin; Collins, Lance R., and Phillips, Jonathan; Dept. of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung Li, Taiwan, Republic of China. http://hep.ucsd.edu/~branson/130/130b/130b_notes_prod/node101.html 78 77 See a Complete Cosmology, which is based on these analogies, in the book, “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity,” beginning in PART III. http://www.angelfire.com/sc3/cosmology or http://www.angelfire.com/sc3/unified_field 78 Reference Material: Williams, L. 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