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Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith James Stone © 1998
FARADAY’S FIELD
The discovery of ‘electromagnetism’ in 1820 culminated from Hans
Christian Oersted’s finding that a ‘magnetic circular current’ would be
generated when passing electricity into a wire. The whole field theory
quest spawned from this event. To determine from where, the
‘magnetic matter,’ ** of which Oersted’s ‘circular current’ was
composed, became the main focus of the scientific world. The fact that
Oersted’s magnetic current was a circular one, forming a sheath that
surrounded the wire, caused a flurry of analytical debate. Maxwell's
Equations are a composite; a reflection of all of the ‘accepted’ scientific
work that culminated from Oersted’s discovery. In the second volume
of Maxwell’s two volume treatises 1 that were written to outline these
works, Maxwell states in article 645 that he has included Faraday’s
experimental researches nos. 3266
and 3268 2 in his Equations. These
researches reflect Faraday’s analogies
with regard to magnetic lines of
force, or the lines that can be seen in
the iron sprinklings that surround a
bar magnet, shown in the photo,
below.
LINES OF FORCE AS THEY
APPEAR IN THE IRON
SPRINKLINGS AROUND A
BAR MAGNET
Faraday: “By magnetic curves, I mean the lines of magnetic forces,
however, modified by the juxtaposition of poles, which would be
depicted by iron filings; or those to which a very small magnetic needle
would form a tangent.” 3
_________________________________________________________
1
“A Treatise on Electricity & Magnetism, Vol. 2,” by James Clerk
Maxwell, Dover Publications, New York, N.Y. (1954).
2“
Michael Faraday,” L. Pearce Williams, pg. 510,. Da Capo Series, N.
Y. (1965). Also, in his paper read before the Cambridge Philosophical
Society on 10 Dec., 1855, ‘On Faraday’s Lines of Force,’ by James
Clerk Maxwell. (1965).
3
Williams, L. Pearce, “Michael Faraday,” p. 200, Da Capo series,
New York, N.Y. (1965).
1
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Faraday’s researches showed that the lines of force occur in two
instances; as ‘electric lines of force,’ which are developed through
electromagnetic induction, and as ‘magnetic lines of force,’ which are
strains that appear within the medium. The strains are evidence of the
forces that lie within a bar magnet. If the magnet is moved, electrical
currents, and induction occurs, which causes the two phenomena to be
‘intimately’ related, but the magnetic forces that generate the electrical
current were something completely different. It is for this reason that
Faraday occupied himself with experimental researches that related to
understanding the operations of these magnetic lines for close to half a
century
Maxwell credited William Thomson (later to be known as Lord Kelvin)
for the final mathematization of the ‘magnetic lines of force.’
However, Thomson mathematized the central, circular portion of the
magnetic lines, only; a proposition that Faraday would have opposed,
inasmuch as the straight magnetic lines on the end, to Faraday, served
as an integral part to the operation of the whole magnetic field that
forms from these lines. In addition, Thomson portrayed these lines as
‘electrostatic,’ not magnetic, also a proposition that Faraday would
have opposed. By portraying the ‘magnetic lines of force’ as, solely,
electrostatic Thomson’s mathematization ultimately served to support
the theories of André-Marie Ampère, whose theories Faraday had,
fervently, opposed for close to fifty years. Faraday's disagreements
regarding Ampère's analogies are well documented in L. Pearce
Williams' book, “Michael Faraday,” 4
Thomson: “All the views which Faraday has brought forward and
illustrated or demonstrated by experiment, lead to this method of
establishing the mathematical theory, and, as far as the analysis is
concerned, it would, in most general propositions, be even more
simple, if possible, than that of Coulomb.” 5
_________________________________________________________
4
Ibid 3
5
Ibid 3, p. 510, William Thomson, ‘On the Mathematical Theory of
Electricity in Equilibrium,’ L. em E. Phil. Mag., 4 Ser., 8(1854), 53.
The paper was first published in the Cambridge and Dublin
Mathematical Journal for November 1845.
2
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
There are several aspects of the magnetic lines of force that are quite
dissimilar to the electrostatic lines of force, 6 and it is for these reasons
that Faraday never would have sanctioned using them in the same
context that they were, eventually, used. The electrostatic lines of force,
as Faraday had found, were always polar due to the polarization of
‘contiguous particles’ by which the electrostatic forces were
transmitted; they always had ‘ends,’ or poles. Conversely, Faraday had
found it impossible to separate, or establish that the magnetic lines of
force had any definite ends, i.e., although the ends of a bar magnet
exhibit the forces of attraction and repulsion, he had never found that
these two phenomenal effects were due to polar ‘strain,’ or ‘pointing’
(3156). Faraday had meant that his research material 3265-3268, shown
below, and used in the formulation of Maxwell’s Equations, to be an
associative or comparative analogy between the behavior of electric
lines of force and the behavior of the magnetic lines of force. For this
reason, he includes an early experimental note (517), to begin the
comparison, where he had obtained an ‘electrodynamic’ current, which
to Faraday is a plain and simple ‘electric current,’ but to appeal to his
colleagues, he had resorted to the ‘electrodynamic’ term. Since the two
phenomena, electricity and magnetism, are convertible to one another,
this comparative analysis shows the close relationship between the two.
Because of their similarities, Faraday proposes that electrical and
magnetic phenomena have an ‘intimate physical relation,’ and possibly
a ‘oneness of condition,’ but he also emphasizes that they are ‘two
powers, or forms of power’ [forces]. He never says that his
‘electrostatic,’ or ‘electric lines of force,’ are one and the same
phenomena as the ‘magnetic lines of force.’ To Faraday, the central,
circular lines in the magnetic lines of force have inductive potential,
which he had found to be a characteristic of electrical phenomena, but
the magnetic lines are a stationary property; pure force. The forces that
emanate from the magnet, stress the medium into the lines that form.
The magnetic lines are imposing force as a stress to the medium, then,
and as Faraday stated many times, would not be evident if it were not
for the ‘strain’ that they impose upon the medium in which they reside.
A strain, in and of itself, is potentially electrical in that resistance can
occur to resist the strain, and although the magnetic lines are ‘strains’
within the medium, until this ‘strain’ is put into motion, there is no
generation of electrical current. Faraday had resolved himself to
_________________________________________________________
6
Ibid 3, pg. 444.
3
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
calling the central, circular current in the magnetic lines of force as
‘electrodynamic,’ because they demonstrated the same inductive
potential as the electric lines of force, but until they were set into
motion, they were purely magnetic force. By calling the central,
circular magnetic lines ‘electrodynamic,’ the lines served to satisfy the
Newtonian ‘particle’ view. The straight lines could serve to satisfy the
‘undulatory,’ or wave view. To Faraday, the magnetic lines of force
were, potentially, wave and particle, but his many descriptions of their
functioning over the years caused a general misunderstanding of what
he had found them, experimentally, to be. Bracketed are my own
comments, below:
“I have elsewhere called the electric current, or line of electrodynamic
force,...‘an axis of power having contrary forces exactly equal in
amount in contrary directions’ (517). “... The line of magnetic force
may be described in precisely the same terms; and these two axes of
power, considered as right lines, [that] are perpendicular to each other;
and this additional condition, which determines their mutual direction,
that they are separated by a right line perpendicular to both
(3265)......'whereas the lines of magnetic force tended to shorten
themselves (3266). “...Electric currents in the same direction attracted
one another, but similar magnetic axes of power or lines of force repel
each other (3267) [he continues his analogy of the magnetic lines of
force, by placing the potentially ‘electrically inductive’ field together
with the surrounding straight lines, in order to show what happens
when the magnetic lines are in motion]...they are contrasts which
coincide when the position of the two axes of power at right angles to
each other are considered...The tendency to elongate in the electric
current [bending of the lines outward, the lines rarify in the central
field], and the tendency to lateral separation of the magnetic lines of
force which surround that current [the straight lines on both ends], are
both tendencies in the same direction, though they seem like contrasts,
when the two axes are considered out of their relation of mutual
position; and this, with other considerations to be immediately referred
to, probably points to the intimate physical relation, and it may be, to
the oneness of condition of that which is apparently two powers or
forms of power, electric and magnetic (3268).” 7
_________________________________________________________
7
Ibid 3, p. 451
4
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Faraday’s reference to the longitudinal vibrations in his ‘magnetic lines
of force,’ is a reference to the rarified lines throughout the central field.
The straight lines are parallel to each other as they appear at both ends;
they are at 90° or right angles to the direction of the central, circular
field. These lines (the straight lines) were left out, completely, from
Thomson’s mathematization. This occurred, even though, as his
experimental researches indicate, Faraday had considered them
important to the whole field of operation.
In lieu of using Faraday’s analogies of the external ‘magnetic lines of
force,’ or straight lines, Thomson had introduced Poisson’s
mathematical theory of the distribution of magnetism and of magnetic
attractions and repulsions.
Thomson had used Wilhelm Weber's mathematical analogies (which
were predicated on André Ampère's Electrodynamic Theory, where
Weber had replaced Ampère's idea of fluids with electric current),
enabling him to introduce Poisson's mathematical theory of magnetic
distribution. Regarding Poisson's theory, Thomson stated, “These laws
seem to represent in the most general manner the state of a body
polarized by influence, and therefore, without adopting any particular
mechanical hypothesis, we may make use of them to form a
mathematical theory of electrical influence in dielectrics, the truth of
which can only be established by a rigorous comparison of its results
with experiment.” 8
Denìs Poisson’s theory of the distribution of magnetism and magnetic
attractions and repulsions; however, were later eliminated from
Maxwell’s [final] Equations. This left out magnetic theory, altogether,
except as it occurred as an after-effect of ‘electrostatic’ action (the
particle, or the central, circular portion of Faraday’s lines of force).
These events caused a major flaw in all field theory that has been
devised since, and carried forward to this day.
_________________________________________________________
8
Ibid 3, p. 464
5
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
FATAL ERRORS
The only reason that Thomson, or Maxwell gave any notice to the lines
of force, in general, was because they could see that the lines could
serve to be utilized, mathematically, into an electrical particle. The
magnetic lines of force, too, could be correlated to the circular current
that had been obtained by Oersted. Faraday’s reputation would add
credence to the finalized theorem, as well. Maxwell states in his two
volume Treatises that it was Faraday’s ‘magnetic lines of force,’ that
were mathematized, however, the fact is, the mathematization served
only to show the central, circular portion, or what could, potentially, be
the ‘electrodynamic’ field. Faraday’s experimental researches 32653267, shown above, causes the confusion, when he refers back to his
researches in electricity (517), stating that “the electric current, or
line[s] of electrodynamic force [is],...”an axis of power having contrary
forces exactly equal in amount in contrary directions.” [and that] “...
The line of magnetic force may be described in precisely the same
terms...”
The following experimental research performed by Faraday on
electrical induction, is what should have been used in Maxwell’s
Equations to show the behavior of an ‘electrostatic’ particle, and
combined with Faraday’s true analogies regarding the magnetic lines of
force, both the wave and the particle that culminates from the wave
would have been shown:
“As argument against the received theory of induction and in favour of
that which I have ventured to put forth, I cannot see how the preceding
results can be avoided. The effects are clearly inductive effects
produced by electricity, not in currents but in its statical state, and this
induction is exerted in lines of force [electric] which, though in many
experiments they may be straight, are here curved more or less
according to circumstances. I use the term line of inductive force
merely as a temporary conventional mode of expressing the direction of
the power in cases of induction; and in the experiments with the
hemisphere (1224), it is curious to see how, when certain lines have
terminated on the under surface and edge of the metal, those which
were before lateral to them expand and open out from each other, some
bending round and terminating their action on the upper surface of the
hemisphere, and others meeting, as it were, above in their progress
6
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
outwards, uniting their forces to give an increased charge to the carrier
ball, at an increased distance from the source of power, and influencing
each other so as to cause a second flexure in the contrary direction from
the first one. All this appears to me to prove that the whole action is
one of contiguous particles, related to each other, not merely in the
lines which they may be conceived to form through the dielectric,
between the inductric and inducteous surfaces (1483), but in other
lateral directions also. It is this which gives an effect spoken of, and
enables induction to turn a corner (1304). The power, instead of being
like that of gravity, which causes particles to act on each other through
straight lines, whatever other particles may be between them, is more
analogous to that of a series of magnetic needles, or to the condition of
the particles considered as forming the whole of a straight or a curved
magnet. So that in whatever way I view it, and with great suspicion of
the influence of favourite notions over myself, I cannot perceive how
the ordinary theory applied to explain induction can be a correct
representation of that great natural principle of electrical action (1231).
Thomson states that his mathematical representation of Faraday's lines
of force [the central, circular lines] “showed curved lines of inductive
action that could be used to establish a mathematical theory of
electrostatic action.” 9
Faraday had found through his experimental researches in electricity
that induction occurs along ‘curved’ lines. 10 There is repulsion
occurring in the central, circular field lines, shown in the photo above,
which causes them to ‘elongate,’ or rarify as they bend outward, and
curve inward toward the ends. Like the increased distance from the
source of power, and influencing electric lines of force, this gives them
the ‘potential’ of induction, hence Faraday began to refer to them as
‘electrodynamic.’ The fact remains, however, that even though the
central magnetic lines of force have electrical potential, until these lines
are cut through motion, no current is generated; they remain purely
magnetic in their stationary state. Through motion, they become
electrical, and therefore, convert to an inductive, electrical state. The
‘elongated’ lines in the central, circular current are continuations of the
_________________________________________________________
9
Ibid 3, p. 176-178
10
Ibid 3 pgs. 296-298
7
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
straight inductive potential as they bend, lines at both ends of the bar
magnet. They are the straight lines, however, repulsion in the central
portion has caused their rarefaction; their bending outwards makes
them more separated, or displaced (elongated is Faraday’s description),
giving them their ‘electrodynamic,’ or curve inwards on the ends. The
‘magnetic lines of force,’ therefore, were shown in Maxwell’s
Equations to be an electrically inductive particle (round or ‘curled’),
without any external lines, or powering forces behind it. To Faraday,
the straight magnetic lines were like ‘terminals,’ connected to the
medium which gave them their power. The straight lines, in turn,
transferred this power to the central, circular field.
8
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
FARADAY’S FIELD
Faraday considered the central, circular portion of the lines of force to
be what he refers to in the researches used in Maxwell’s Equations to
behave ‘exactly’ the same as the electrical lines of force described in
his experimental research 1231, shown above on electrical induction.
When the lines are cut through motion, they behave exactly as the
electric lines of force; they induct electricity into the central, circular
field. The electrical ‘potential,’ therefore, lies within the central,
circular portion of the magnetic lines of force, and the magnetic
potential lies within the straight lines. The central, circular field is
what Faraday refers to as the ‘lateral,’ transverse vibrations. When he
states that the ‘fields’ are at right angles to one another, he means that
they lie at 90° angles to one another.
The idea of a ‘transverse wave’ had not, yet, been developed. So,
Faraday’s meaning of ‘transverse’ in the central, circular portion is
important. Faraday’s ‘transverse vibration’ became known and
mathematized in the ‘adjective’ sense of the word; the impetus behind
Maxwell’s Equations is: “1: acting, lying, or being across:
set
crosswise 2: made at right angles to the anterior-posterior axis of the
body.” 11
The photo, below, gives the general idea of the electric and magnetic
fields as they would be at right angles to one another, or lying across as
two interspersed transverse waves that cancel, mathematically; electric
and magnetic constantly at right angles to one another.
_________________________________________________________
11
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Inc. (2004);
http://www.m-w.com/
9
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
As we all know, the electromagnetic wave function, evolved to lie
cross-wise as a progressive transverse wave that emits and absorbs
through peak and decline, shown in the photo, below:
These depictions of wave function are not
what Faraday meant. Faraday’s research
material (1231) on ‘electric induction’ shows
that he meant the word ‘transverse’ to be used
in the form of a ‘noun,’ not as an ‘adjective.
The definition when using the term as a noun
is: “something (as a piece, section, or part)
that is transverse. This is what the central,
circular current is; a section or part of the lines
of magnetic force that repel in the center,
causing the lines to ‘traverse,’ or travel
oppositely. To Faraday, a transverse wave is
recoil that occurs through a pulsation
generated throughout the central field,
collecting along the surface of the whole sphere as a saturation current,
or boundary layer. 12 In his research material on electrical induction,
Faraday describes a ‘peak’ that is a ‘termination’ of the action on the
upper surface of the hemisphere, or ball used in the experiment. The
electrical energy at this ‘termination’ point traverses the field as a
‘second flexure’ that travels in ‘contrary’ or opposite direction from the
first one. This is recoil in the opposite direction.
_________________________________________________________
See Photo, below: ‘Evidence For A Bose-Einstein Condensate in Dilute Rb
Gas by Absorption Image In A Quadrupole and Ioffe Configuration Trap,’
Chinese Phys. Lett., 799, Vol. 20, No. 6 (21 February 2003), Wang, Yu-Zhu,
Zhou Shu-Yu, Long Quan, Zhou San-Yu, Fu Hai-Xiang; Sanghai Institute of
Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800.
12
10
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
The only difference between the electric lines of force and the magnetic
lines of force is that the magnetic lines have to be cut through motion to
generate electrical current. Then, the bulk of the pulse, or discharge
generated, would occur at the surface of the circular field, as Faraday
describes in his experimental research 1231 on electrical induction.
Faraday at this point in his career had set the stage for this central,
circular current to be a functioning, pulsating particle** with the
straight lines functioning as terminals. The terminals would gain power
from the medium to which they were connected, and in turn, drive the
central, circular current. The central, circular current would discharge
the power gained from the terminals along the surface of the circular
current. All that was left for Faraday, now, to do was to figure out the
energy ‘substance’ of which these ‘forces’ were made, and exhibiting
themselves as straight lines. To Faraday at this point, there was no
‘aether’ per se; he had already dismissed it in his thesis, “Thoughts On
Ray Vibrations,” stating that radiant matter would replace the aether
hypothesis. He began experiments in terrestrial magnetism, therefore,
in order to determine what ‘substance’ the medium was composed.
This ‘substance,’ would also be the ‘magnetic force’ in which his
particle would be immersed.
_________________________________________________________
** The phenomena of ‘balled lightening’ occur through the development of
magnetic lines of force, which are refractive lines. As electrical current is
increased, however, electrical induction increases, which increases
magnetization. Increased magnetization coheres [attractive forces] the current
into a solid formation of ‘light,’ which is coherent radiation. As the electric
current is transformed into coherent radiation, the overall energy is in phase,
and ‘like’ forces begin to repel, forming the circular current. The circle, or
‘ball’ formed is a combination of forces, electric and magnetic (repulsion and
attraction; emission and absorption, respectively), the bulk of these functions
occur along the surface, which is a boundary layer, or boundary charge that is
‘pulsed,’ due to emission and recoil (recoil is absorption).
11
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
The ultra-cold experiments, or Bose-Einstein Condensates, shown in
detail later, are demonstrating Faraday’s findings, but this is getting too
far ahead. To gain insight into Faraday’s complete view of the
functioning of the straight lines, and their connection to the whole field,
it is necessary to follow the steps that led him to his conclusions.
Photo: ‘Evidence For A Bose-Einstein Condensate
in Dilute Rb Gas by Absorption Image In A
Quadrupole and Ioffe Configuration Trap,’ Chinese
Phys. Lett., 799, Vol. 20, No. 6 (21 February 2003),
Wang, Yu-Zhu, Zhou Shu-Yu, Long Quan, Zhou
San-Yu, Fu Hai-Xiang; Sanghai Institute of Optics
and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shanghai 201800.
Photo below from: Davis, K.B., Mewes, M.O., Andrews, M.R., Van
Druten, N.J., Durfee, D.S., Kurn, D.M., Ketterle, W. – 1995 Phys. Rev.
Lett. 75, 3969:
Fig. 2 (color). Two-dimensional probe absorption images, after 6 ms time-of-flight,
showing evidence of BEC. (a) is the velocity distribution of a cloud cooled just
above the transition point, (b), just after the condensate appeared, and (c) after
further evaporative cooling has left an almost pure condensate. (b) shows the
difference between the isotropic thermal distribution and an elliptical core
attributed to the expansion of a dense condensate. The width of the images is 870
m. Gravitational acceleration during the probe delay displaces the cloud by only
0.2 mm along the z axis.
12
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
MAGNETIC EFFECT
If two magnets are placed together, end to end, where the forces come
together; they either clamp shut, or they repel. However, there existed
a paradox then, and now, where magnetic forces are concerned, which
is that in keeping the exact same ends together, but turning one of the
magnets a half turn, the magnets will now repel. Ampére’s explanation
of this paradox, which is the one held today, is that the particles, and/or
molecules within the magnets polarize such that they always cause the
two opposite effects to occur, even when a magnet is broken in half, it
will exhibit these two-force characteristics. Faraday’s view of the
magnet was not so ‘black and white,’ as he had expressed in his
experimental research (3156), shown previously. His discovery of
diamagnetism, along with over forty years of research with regard to
the magnetic lines of force, had caused him to have a different view. A
view that was completely radical to most of the other scientists.
Maxwell and Thomson were among a handful of scientists that took
Faraday’s ideas regarding the ‘magnetic lines of force’ seriously.
Faraday always attributed the ‘magnetic lines of force’ as an effect of
force that could be seen to occur within the medium. The presence of
the magnet and the forces within the magnet impede, or displace the
medium into the resulting lines. If it were not for the medium, or
whatever the medium consists of, the forces that these lines represent,
which is strain, could not be seen or made evident. Since magnetic
forces had been found to exist, innately, in all matter, to Faraday, these
lines could explain all that exists, even space.
A magnet only ‘attracts’ or ‘repels’ when another magnet, or a good
conducting substance such as metal, is placed near it. This is why
Faraday expressed a ‘caveat’ in experimental research 3156, shown
above, to not “assume that pointing is always the direct effect of
attractive and repulsive forces acting in couples...” Place plastic, and
many other substances beside it and nothing happens. Turning the
magnet, or ‘flipping’ it a half-turn, is in actuality what is occurring to
produce the central current. The central, circular ‘lines of force’ are
continuations of the straight lines; however, the straight lines are
repelling in the center. They bend, or repel one another, because they
are the same, or ‘like’ forces that are opposing one another (Faraday
had, actually, said this in his exp. res. 3265-3268, but it was construed
to mean that when placing two magnets together, their ‘like’ forces
13
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
repel, which is true as well). The central, circular lines are rarified
lines that bend, or curve outwardly, inducting or terminating on the
ends, confining the circle that they form. These lines are refractive;
however, stationary. Repulsion of the straight lines, or ‘like’ forces, in
the central field causes the circular current as the lines inverse, or
displace, because they are repelling. The two fields emerge in the form
of two half-currents that are ‘mirror images’ of one another (the lines
that appear on either side of the length of the bar magnet in the center).
These two half currents are not the opposite forces of attraction and
repulsion, but two ‘like’ forces that form an inversed field. The central
lines are a confined field that strains the medium into the circle formed.
The two half-currents have the potential to work in opposition to one
another (if they move from their stationary state), due to the inversion
that has occurred. However, the magnetic lines, in general, i.e, the
straight, as well as the central, circular current are attracted to one
another, as Faraday was, actually, describing in his experimental
researches 3265-3268. The mere fact that the lines of force ‘moved’
into the formation of the circle adds up to at least one (1), but until the
lines are cut through motion, the lines remain ‘stationary’ and cancelled
at one. In this state, the lines have refractive potential, however, they
are non-motional, so they are a stationary wave that has the potential to
become ‘electrodynamic’ through motion. This analogy can be used to
explain an equilibrium state in a refractive medium, such as the Earth’s
terrestrial medium; a state where particles exist (circular current);
however, they remain, virtually, non-motional as gases in a state of
equilibrium (steady state). As this state becomes more and more
motional, refraction or displacement begins to dominate contributing to
the radioactive decay processes that are occurring. The straight lines
on either end of the magnet are, distinctly, different from the central,
circular field; they are strains within the medium, but they are not
simple attraction and repulsion (as Faraday kept telling them), as the
‘half-turn,’ or flip analysis indicates. The fact that the straight lines
carry within them the potential to go either way, i.e., to become either
an attractive force or a repelling force, tells the story; they are in a zero
state, unless they are displaced! It was for this reason that Faraday
expressed in exp. res. 3156, shown above, that pointing is not,
necessarily, a direct effect of attraction or repulsion. This state of
magnetization, it will be shown, carries the potential to exhibit both
weak and strong force characteristics, depending on whether they are
strained into an inversed field, or not. This is why Faraday searched for
14
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
a state of ‘no magnetic action in matter! A state of magnetism that is
stationary, or non-motional would be a perfect state of magnetism...it
would complete the force characteristics that a magnet exhibits!
When the ends of the magnets clamp shut, the two magnets have
attracted strongly, because their inherent force of zero encounters no
opposition...the two magnets are super-conducting, because the zero
effect has created a vacuum between them! The forces between the
magnets, at first, seem to oppose the attraction that exists between them,
but as they are brought closer together they clamp shut, strongly
cohering to one another, as the attractive forces between them take over,
unifying and zeroing out any resistances between them; they are in
phase at zero, where their unified, or united forces are strongly coherent
[attractive]. Although zero would appear to be a cancellation of force,
due to the fact that all resistance is nil, the attractive forces between the
magnets have taken over, cohering into one unified force that is zero.
Zero resistance has increased magnetization between the two magnets,
as well as having created a vacuum between them, and they speed
toward one another, clamping shut. When the magnets repel, it is
because their zero forces have been displaced into refractive, or rarified
lines that repel due to their displacement. Impedance has caused the
straight lines to displace into the central current, which is a series of
‘refractive,’ rarified lines. Although these lines form a stationary field,
the field is not cancelled in the same sense, because the field that they
form is one of repulsion. This is why the ‘flip’ enigma occurs at both,
or either end, i.e., there is no real distinction until a magnetic object is
brought near, and then the second magnet, or good conducting
substance, either resists or coheres to the magnetization of the first
magnet.
The lines of force are the key toward understanding this phenomenon.
These lines, as Faraday repeatedly emphasized, are not composed of
particles that polarize; they constitute pure magnetic force, both weak
and strong. The strong force being zero, where the forces between the
magnets unite, and cohere, canceling any opposition. Any force, or
change from this state causes opposition, or repulsion, which is ‘one,’
and beyond, if the ‘lines of force’ move, generating current when they
are cut through motion. Remember, Faraday had found that magnetism
could exist, independently, from electrical phenomena. These lines, not
15
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Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
only can exist in a vacuum, which he pointed out early on, they are a
vacuum in their unstrained state; zero. As a vacuum state of matter, i.e.,
as zero, magnetization is in a perfect state: it is a strong, coherent, nonresistive force.
The lines of force can only be seen as they impose strain upon the
medium. When they are unstrained, they are merged together as a
strong, coherent state of magnetization; they are in their zero state,
where there is no opposition. The whole of this theorem will support
these facts. Magnetic force is enigmatic! The behavior of ‘zero’
presents a paradox of, not equal but opposite forces,**but weak and
strong forces; repulsion being the weak force and coherency or
attraction, which is zero, being strong.
Maxwell states in his Treatise, Vol. 2, Art. 376, shown above, that “The
quantity which we have hitherto called the strength of a pole may be
called a quantity of ‘magnetism,’ provided we attribute no properties to
‘magnetism’ except those observed in the poles of magnets…” The
‘poles’ of the magnet, carrying the ‘strength,’ or magnetic power, can
be seen as the straight magnetic lines of force in the bar magnet; the
lines left out of Thomson’s mathematization. Maxwell sealed the fate
of these lines by ‘attributing’ them with ‘no properties.’ Since the
poles are, supposedly, two very ‘opposite’ forces that cancel when they
are added together, mathematically speaking, the poles were ‘zeroed
out’ as any kind of magnetic force, or ‘strength’ and power. To the
mathematicians, this was a cancellation of force [and power], which
placed all of the power and energy into the electrodynamic portion. To
Faraday, the ‘forces’ that the straight lines represented, whatever the
straight lines were as force, they held within them a concentration of
force that became the power behind the culmination and stimulation of
the central, circular portion (electrostatic particle). This ‘strength,’ or
power has the potential to ‘flip’ either way, to become either attractive
or repulsive, or both. These straight magnetic lines of force are a state
of no resistance, i.e., they are zero unless strained, which makes them a
perfect diamagnetic. Perfect diamagnetism is a perfect state of
magnetization: zero, an unstrained state of magnetization, and a nonpolar condition. When the straight lines repel, forming rarified lines
and a central, circular current, the central field formed becomes a
_________________________________________________________
**See page 66 in book, along with footnotes.
16
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
force that repels any other magnetic field brought near it, because it is
an insulated field.
The characteristics of straight lines and circles became very important
later, in the discoveries of x-rays, gamma rays and cathode rays. These
higher radiations constitute strong, coherent (attractive) forces. The
behavior of hydrogen as a diamagnetic substance;*** it will be shown,
is a high radiation and perfect state of magnetization that is a state of
no-resistance; a non-electrical state of light that is a super-conducting
state in the open medium of interstellar space that constitutes a vacuum.
“It cannot be doubted that the magnetic forces act upon and affect the
internal constitution of the diamagnetic...” (2226) “If the magnetic
forces had made these bodies magnets, we could, by light, have
examined a transparent magnet; and that would have been a real help to
our investigation of the forces of matter. But it does not make them
magnets..., and therefore the molecular condition of these bodies, when
in the state described, must be specifically distinct from that of
magnetized iron, or other such matter, and must be a new magnetic
condition [diamagnetism]; and as the condition is a state of tension
(manifested by its instantaneous return to the normal state when the
magnetic induction is removed), so the force which the matter in this
state possesses and its mode of action, must be to us a new magnetic
force or mode of action of matter (2227).
17
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
CATHODE
RAYS
ELECTRONS.
BECOME
PARTICLES:
After his exhaustive study of cathode rays (Röntgen had established
that cathode rays produce x-rays) and their effects on gases, J. J.
Thomson proposed the following, very important, analogy with regard
to them:
“Thus on this view we have in the cathode rays matter in a new state, a
state in which the subdivision of matter is carried very much further
than in the ordinary gaseous state: a state in which all matter--that is,
matter derived from different sources such as hydrogen, oxygen, & c.-is of one and the same kind; this matter being the substance from which
all the chemical elements are built up.” 13
In 1897, J. J. Thomson announced to the Royal Society that cathode
rays were negatively charged particles. His conclusion was based on
the results he had obtained through the measurement of the ratio of
charge to mass for a single particle. He achieved this with a specially
designed cathode ray tube, the precursor of the tube in a present-day
TV set. The cathode was at the far narrow end of the tube, the anode a
few centimeters away, with a small hole in its center. The rays went
from the cathode to the anode, but a narrow beam continued through
the hole in the anode to the glass at the other end of the tube, where
their impact caused the glass to glow in a small central spot. Thomson
also added inside the tube two parallel plates arranged so that the
narrow beam of cathode rays went between them on its way to the end
of the tube. He found that electrically charging these plates caused the
beam to deflect, so the glowing spot moved from the center of the end
of the tube. (This was different from Hertz' result. Possibly Hertz'
externally applied field was shielded by space charge on or near the
walls of the tube). Thomson also added magnets to give a uniform
magnetic field in the region between the plates. By adjusting this
magnetic field strength to cancel the deflection of the rays caused by
the electric field, he was able to measure the speed of the rays:
_________________________________________________________
13
J. J. Thomson, Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (1897). [facsimile from
Stephen Wright, Classical Scientific Papers, Physics (Mills and Boon, 1964).]
http://maple.lemoyne.edu/faculty/giunta/thomson1897.html.
18
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
eE = evB
By cancelling the magnetic field strength, the charge cancels as well,
and the velocity or speed becomes the ratio of electric field strength as
compared to magnetic field strength.
Having determined the
horizontal speed Thomson, then, deduced the charge to mass ratio by
measuring the deflection in the electric field alone. **
Why cancel deflection and charge with the introduction of magnets,
only to reintroduce deflection with an electrostatic force and a magnetic
force? By reintroducing these outside ‘forces’ motion, of course,
occurred. Deflection implemented electrical or resistive action; as the
light was displaced, diffraction began to occur:
Thomson: “As the cathode rays carry a charge of negative electricity,
are deflected by an electrostatic force as if they were negatively
electrified, and are acted on by a magnetic force in just the way in
which this force would act on a negatively electrified body moving
along the path of these rays, I can see no escape from the conclusion
that they are charges of negative electricity carried by particles of
matter. The question next arises, what are these particles? are they
atoms, or molecules, or matter in a still finer state of subdivision? To
throw some light on this point, I have made a series of measurements of
the ratio of the mass of these particles to the charge carried by it.”14
The Remy, et. al. 15 experiment, shown later, exemplifies this fact;
electrons occur when pressure is imposed upon this ‘dark’ state of light.
Otherwise, in an evacuated tube, the light expands and stabilizes in its
'dark' condition. Deflection, or displacement, causes scintillations to
occur within gases, which is demonstrated in the experiment described
_________________________________________________________
14
Ibid 13
“Plasma structure in a pulsed discharge environment,” Institute Of Physics
Publishing, Plasma Sources Science and Technology, Vol. 12, pgs. 295–301
(May 6, 2003); Jéröme Remy, Ludovic Biennier and Farid Salama, NASA
Ames Research Center, Space Science Division, MS 245-6, Moffett Field, CA
94035-1000, USA.
**The Thomas Young Experiment diffracted light from its normal, equilibrium
state!! These experiments only proved that when light is diffracted, it is
displaced from its equilibrium state of zero to a state of electrical resistance; the
particles undergo emission and absorption to regain equilibrium.
15
19
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
by Ernest Rutherford, shown in the next section. The scintillations that
occur when this dark light is deflected or pressurized is burning; the
burning results in particle formation as resistances to motion continues.
Resistance to motion within the gases causes it to become 'charged'
through this 'burning' process. In its natural state; however, which is
what dark matter and light is, the gases tend to expand and stabilize in
their resonance condition, as outlined in the next section.
As subsequent particle experiments demonstrated throughout the
1900’s, a myriad of ‘deflective particles’ can occur from the deflection
of this 'dark' energy in all shapes, ‘flavors’ and sizes (the only instance
where the ‘Uncertainty Principle’ might actually apply---see
‘Schrödinger’s Waves,’ pg. 122-123).
There were many questions that remained with regard to this 'dark'
energy state. After Thomson's conclusion was made, no one went back
to measure the cathode rays in their natural condition to determine
whether or not these rays were, in fact, hydrogen ions, or whether or
not their frequency would place them in a category, as Röntgen had
proposed, that would be another 'form' of ultraviolet. Having done so,
would have given them an 'identity' on the spectral charts, i.e., placed
them within the electromagnetic spectrum of light. In addition, it
would have shown that the decay of hydrogen produces particles, and
that the radioactive decay elements are products derived from this
decay. The next section will show that 'dark energy,' generally, is
hydrogen, and that hydrogen in its normal, steady-state condition is a
free neutron that fuses easily, into coherent states of light .
Through Thomson’s experiments, it was proposed that cathode rays
were composed of small charged ‘particles’; smaller than the smallest
atom. Thomson found this ratio e/m to be independent of the material
of which the cathode was composed, and in 1899, he found that the
particles had the same e/m, so it was proposed that the particles and
cathode rays were probably one and the same phenomena; electrons.
Thomson was able to find the charge e, for the particles produced,
while working on a 'cloud chamber' experiment with his student, C. T.
R. Wilson. They introduced cathode rays into a supersaturated vapor.
Tiny droplets formed around each 'free electron.' Thomson and Wilson
estimated the total number of droplets formed by counting, then, they
determined the total charge by collecting the droplets on an electro-
20
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
scope. Their results were off by almost 40%, but close enough to
suggest strongly that the particles had the same magnitude charge as the
hydrogen ion.
Thomson’s newly devised static model embedded his electrons in a
uniform positive charge (a +ion), which caused the electrons to obey
Poisson’s equation [again, with the ‘uniform’ positive charge: a
hydrogen ion].
Thomson proposed that the positive charge was
concentrated into a small massive nucleus.
Cathode rays, then, which J. J. Thomson had originally proposed to be
a ‘substratum,’ or building block of the atom, as well as the ‘substance’
of which the aether might be composed, became an ‘electrical charge’;
the smallest particle embedded within a 'uniform positive charge.'
Thomson: “The electrified-particle theory has for purposes of research
a great advantage over the aetherial theory, since it is definite and its
consequences can be predicted; with the aetherial theory it is
impossible to predict what will happen under any given circumstances,
as on this theory we are dealing with hitherto unobserved phenomena in
the aether, of whose laws we are ignorant.” 16
In every instance, instead of measuring the rays in their natural ‘dark’
state, the dark light was refracted or deflected, and the product derived
from motion is what was measured; an electrically resistive particle
was the result (especially when cyclotrons and particle accelerators
were developed). The discovery of x-rays was a life-altering event.
Scientists scrambled to see what could be done with them. Among
them was the aforementioned Ernest Rutherford, who had worked as a
research student with J. J. Thomson at the Cavendish laboratory at
Cambridge University in England. Thomson had invited Rutherford, in
1896, to assist him with a study of the affect of x-rays on gases.
Thomson and Rutherford had found that the gas molecules break-up
into positively and negatively charged ions, which make them
electrically conductive (that says it all; the deflection of gas causes it to
become 'charged'--more on this later). By 1897 Rutherford began a
_________________________________________________________
16
J. J. Thomson, Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (1897). [facsimile from
Stephen Wright, Classical Scientific Papers, Physics (Mills and Boon, 1964).]
http://maple.lemoyne.edu/faculty/giunta/thomson1897.html
21
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
study of radioactivity by performing scattering experiments on various
elements with the x-rays. His work in this area with uranium, where he
wrapped uranium with layers of aluminum foil, resulted in the
production of what he deemed alpha and beta rays. The alpha rays,
Rutherford proposed, were a "less penetrating" type of radiation and the
beta rays a "more penetrating" type radiation. Later, Rutherford found
an even more penetrating type radiation than the beta rays, which was
described by French physicist, Paul Villard, as "gamma radiation." In
1898, Rutherford became Second MacDonald Professor of Physics at
McGill University in Montreal, Canada, where he resumed his study of
radioactivity with the element thorium. Thorium, he found, emits
alpha, beta and gamma radiation; however, a third 'erratic' radiation
made an appearance in the emission patterns of the thorium. In 1901,
Rutherford joined with Frederick Soddy, a chemist at McGill
University in Montreal, Canada, in the further study of the thorium
emissions, as well as other radioactive elements. Emulating the work
in the area of radioactivity of other well-known chemists and
physicists, in praticular, Henri Becquerel and Sir William Crookes,
who had isolated an 'active part' of uranium from an 'inert,' inactive
part, Rutherford and Soddy began isolating thorium. They obtained, as
the active part, a portion that they named thorium-X, which gradually
lost its radioactivity. The 'parent,' or original thorium; however,
regained its activity.
Rutherford and Soddy's explanation of
radioactivity showed that alpha, beta and gamma radiation were
physical manifestations of radioactive disintegration; these radiations
were the 'pieces' of the thorium atom that was released as it decayed.
The thorium was being transmuted into a new element of lower atomic
number as it decayed. For their explanation of the radioactive decay
process, Rutherford and Soddy earned the 1908 Nobel Prize. In 1903,
Rutherford had proved, experimentally, that alpha particles are nuclei
of helium atoms. In 1907, Rutherford was appointed professor of
physics at Manchester University, England, where he continued his
studies of radioactivity, by scattering elements with alpha particles
(helium). It was from these studies that he was able to announce by
1911, his concept of the atom, surmising that it did not resemble, as his
former professor, J. J. Thomson, had proposed a "plum pudding" of
positively charged nuclear particles (hydrogen protons) embedded with
electrons, but instead consisted of a very small dense nucleus
surrounded by a cloud of electrons. His colleagues at Manchester,
Ernest Marsden and Hans Geiger (Geiger and Rutherford had together
22
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
devised a method of scattering alpha particles in electric and magnetic
fields, proving that they had positive charge) provided the mathematics
to support Rutherford's atomic model theory. Rutherford and Marsden
observed in 1914 that alpha particles fired into hydrogen gas produce
uncommon numbers of scintillations. Rutherford, at first, concluded
that the scintillations were being caused by the hydrogen nuclei. He
later observed, however, that the same effect occurred when alpha
particles were fired into nitrogen. By 1919, Rutherford determined that
the alpha particles were splitting the nitrogen atoms (In 1925 physicists
Paul Maynard Stewart Blackett and C. T. R. Wilson verified
Rutherford's findings and showed that the split occurs as a result of the
absorption of the alpha particles by the element) and that the extraneous
hydrogen atoms were remnants of the split.17 This is such an important
point within the experiment; however, it was virtually ignored, because
hydrogen, as an element had already been discovered, and the
scattering of hydrogen, which causes it to burn (scintillations), like a
particle would, would be a chemistry matter, not a nuclear one; these
scientists were creating a whole new field of science, and they knew it.
The scintillations in the hydrogen would not win a Nobel Prize, unless
it could be shown that the scintillations produce a particle, which will
be shown later that it is.
The scintillations, therefore, were just
noteworthy, falling into the realm of chemistry, a field of science that
they were trying to avoid. They could not have known, also, that
hydrogen would become of value to the world in the future as a
potential fuel product. The 'extraneous hydrogen'; the hydrogen atoms
gained as 'remnants of the split,' I propose, are the 'binding energy'; the
energy already present, and holding the particles together! It has,
literally, come from the hydrogen bonds! The alpha particles, or
helium, too, are a major portion of the 'extraneous hydrogen' produced
from these experiments. This energy source, hydrogen, as UTC Theory
will demonstrate, is the binding energy in all radioactive decay
elements. The hydrogen is a product of the fusion of hydrogen, which
occurs early in the Earth's atmosphere. The fusion product is the
energy that lies latent within all of the atomic elements; it is a
conserved, stored energy source.
William Thomson was among the 'old guard' of scientists, who did not
_________________________________________________________
“Scientists: The Lives and Works of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 3, pgs. 805-813;
Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996).
17
23
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
believe that radioactivity was a discovery at all, feeling that it could be
explained through already discovered phenomena. He gave lectures on
the subject near the end of his career. There were many other scientists
who believed this 'Victorian science,' as they called it (wrong choice of
words, implying that their ideas were out-dated). The fact is,
Rutherford's 'alpha and beta rays' were just new words, devised by him,
in order to describe already discovered phenomena. When Rutherford
coined these terms; however, he was unaware of what he had found. It
took years of research to determine their characteristics and functions.
The alpha rays are helium. The beta rays are x-rays; the gamma
radiation, which is an extension in frequency of x-rays, also a
penetrating radiation, however, was a new discovery. Rutherford
proposed that these three 'items' come from the 'dense' nucleus of the
atom, and that electrons form a cloud surrounding the nucleus.
In Germany, Walter Bothe began bombarding beryllium with alpha
particles and produced another 'new form of radiation,' which he
explained in terms of gamma radiation. In 1932, after bombarding
beryllium with alpha particles, the Joliot-Curies, also obtained what
they described as an 'uncharged radiation emitting from the target
atoms, and difficult to detect.' The Joliot-Curies determined that the
emission was from the nuclei, and in turn caused protons (a 'particle'
term devised by Rutherford; protons are hydrogen ions) to be ejected
from the nuclei of atoms in paraffin. James Chadwick, who was
working at the Cavendish Laboratory where Rutherford, in 1919, had
been appointed to succeed J. J. Thomson's position as Cavendish
Professor and as head of the Cavendish Laboratory, and had performed
experiments with Rutherford between 1920 to 1924, raced to determine
what the 'new radiation' could be. Rutherford had predicted in a paper
that he published in 1921 that a 'neutron,' a 'particle' term that he
devised, could exist within the atomic nucleus as a tightly bound proton
and electron. Chadwick, therefore, not wanting to be 'trumped' by the
Joliot-Curies in the discovery of the neutron, recognized that a highenergy 'uncharged radiation' was just what Rutherford had predicted
almost a decade earlier. Chadwick, fervently pursued the discovery for
himself, coming to his conclusions within a 'few hectic days.' 18 He first
confirmed the Joliot-Curie's findings and measured the mass of the
_________________________________________________________
18
“Science--A History 1543-2001,” by John Gribbin; Allen Lane, An
Imprint of Penguin Books, The Penguin Group (2002), pgs. 507-508.
24
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
'new neutral radiation,' which he proposed to be slightly greater than
the proton (another term devised by Rutherford). Chadwick proposed
that alpha particles were knocking the neutral particles out of the
beryllium with which he was working, and that these 'neutral particles'
were what had knocked the protons (hydrogen nuclei) from the paraffin
used by the Joliot-Curies. Paraffin contains an abundance of hydrogen.
The 'new neutral form of radiation,' which had been proposed to be
similar to gamma radiation, became a 'new particle' as Chadwick
calculated the radiation to be slightly greater than the mass of one
hydrogen atom (one proton and one electron), deducing (or should we
say 'influenced by Rutherford's suggestion in his 1921 paper) that what
he had obtained was a combination of two energy sources: one proton
and one electron. The hydrogen proton is a positive charge and the
electron a negative charge (H1), and the general idea was that the
charges cancel one another, 19 causing the overall particle to be a
neutral 'charge'; the neutron, exactly as it was predicted by Rutherford
in his 1921 paper. Chadwick's hypothesis, therefore, not only
completed the atomic structure of the elements, i.e., as Rutherford's
atomic model theory had proposed it to be, but the Cavendish
Laboratory had produced every one of the discoverers of the particles
that were proposed to comprise the atom, as well; and all of the
discoverers had been awarded Nobel Prizes.
Chadwick's neutron is reminiscent of the 'extraneous hydrogen'
produced in the 1914 experiment conducted by Rutherford and
Marsden, and confirmed in 1925 by Paul Maynard Steward Blackett
and C. T. R. Wilson, who proposed that absorption of the alpha rays
(helium nuclei) was producing the 'extraneous hydrogen (which
scintillated or burned) from the split.' As you will see, the Remy, et al.
experiment 20 shown later, obtained similar results; particles are
produced through pressures imposed on an expanded gas (argon).
Unlike the Joliot-Curie and Bothe findings, which cited that they had
discovered an 'uncharged radiation that was similar to gamma
radiation,' Chadwick's neutron involves two separate charges; one
positive and one negative (H1) that, mathematically, cancel one another.
This idea of charge cancellation, as has already been outlined, dates
_________________________________________________________
“Scientists: The Lives and Works of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 3, pgs. 805-813;
Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996).
20
Ibid 15
19
25
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
back to Maxwell's Equations. Rutherford had predicted that the electron
in his neutron would form a boundary condition; tightly binding the
hydrogen proton. It was pointed out when Chadwick presented his
neutron hypothesis, that the electron follows classical theory; it is a
moving, charged particle that would radiate off all of its energy, and
slowly spiral, or collapse into the nucleus. Neils Bohr, who had
worked at the Cavendish with J. J. Thomson, and later with Rutherford
at the University of Manchester until 1916, overcame the obstacle with
the use of quantum theory, as it had been proposed by Max Planck,
who had studied blackbody radiation at the University of Berlin. A
blackbody is an object that absorbs all of the electromagnetic radiation
that falls on it, and then releases that radiation in the form of thermal
energy.
Planck proposed that energy could be released, not
continuously as in classical theory, but in bundles that he called
'quanta.' The energy of the 'quanta' was formulated by Planck into a
mathematical 'constant,' now called the Planck constant, which gives
the emitted 'quanta' as a proportioned unit that is dependent on the
frequency of the wave. In the Planck analogy, 'energy elements' (he
conceded to the fact that the chemical elements were the energy
'oscillators' in his model), are divided into finite, but very large number
of equal, tiny parts, which constitute a constant in nature (back to this
later). Bohr proposed that electrons remained in their orbits within the
nucleus because they are not capable of continuously emitting radiation.
Using Planck's analogy of 'quanta,' Bohr suggested that the electrons
could travel around the nucleus without radiating energy, provided they
remain in certain restricted orbits. Bohr further proposed that the
electrons could move, or jump from one orbit to another by gaining or
losing one quantum or several quanta of energy (Einstein never agreed
with Bohr's analogies in this regard), and devised an equation for
calculating the frequency of radiation that could be expected when
electrons make various energy transfers within the atom. These
frequencies were for the hydrogen atom, as they had been proposed by
Johann Balmer, who had developed a hydrogen spectrum through a
formula that he devised (not based on observations) for the
wavelengths of hydrogen. The hydrogen spectrum formed 'lines'
according to wavelength. Chadwick's neutron, therefore, as it had been
proposed by Rutherford, became part of the nucleus, along with the
proton.
The experimental researchers and mathematicians have not taken into
26
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Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
account the 'space' that exists between these charged particles in their
formulas. They have made their formulas contract the hydrogen into
the smallest bit of mass, to include the electron. But the electron is not
a gas; hydrogen is the gas that constitutes the smallest 'bit' of matter,
and the lightest element. Electrical charge is a different kind of force
than the forces of magnetism, as was outlined in the beginning chapters
of this book. The two forces of electricity, as they exist within an atom
would appear nearly the same as the two forms of electricity that can be
seen in the vacuum tube; dark energy and glowing, or emissive light.
Do these two energy sources cancel one another, even as is proposed,
when energy is introduced into the tube, and travels due to its
respective 'charging' to its opposite charge?
The answer is
obvious...No. These radiations are, actually, repelling one another,
performing a 'push-pull' effect (e.m.f), in their relation to one another,
rather than attracting, and cancelling out, or as was shown in the
section on 'Magnetic Effect,' (spiralling into or collapsing into the
nucleus would be this same effect). Opposite electrical charges may
work out to be cancelled, mathematically, but in reality, they do not
cancel one another, but rather oppose one another as an e.m.f. Why,
because electrical energy (or charging) is the result of displacement, or
resistance.
Early in his researches, Faraday had noticed that the two electrical
powers; positive and negative, were not exactly equal and opposite, and
as has already been shown, he had been annoyed with the terms
'positive' and 'negative,' because they did not aptly portray what is
really going on with charge. Faraday proposed that charge was merely
a matter of degree; the positive more and the negative less. He found,
after experimenting with vacuum tubes in 1838 that charges moved
from weaker to stronger points of force in the tube, 21 and established
that a ‘wave’ always travels from the negative electrode to the positive
electrode. He validated this fact many times through the course of his
investigations, noting as a final remark: “…still I feel as if the source
of the rays was at the Neg.wire.” 22 It was many years later that these
rays were given the name cathode rays, but Faraday was never given
credit for having discovered them.
_________________________________________________________
21
Ibid 2, p. 503, M. Faraday, Diary 7, 458 [276].
22
Ibid 2, p. 503, M. Faraday, Thirteenth Series, Chapter Six, Section 3.
27
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Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Faraday: “All the phaenomena resolve themselves into this, that a
portion of such matter, when under magnetic action, tends to move
from stronger to weaker places or points of force. When the substance
is surrounded by lines of magnetic force of equal power on all sides, it
does not tend to move, as is then in marked contradistinction with a
linear current of electricity under the same circumstances.” (2418)
The 'uncharged radiation,' discovered by Bothe and elaborated upon by
the Joliot-Curies was the 'true' neutron; a state of hydrogen that is as
Faraday proposed in his experimental research (2428), shown above,
this radiation is 'of equal magnetic force of equal power on al sides,
[which] does not tend to move, as is then in marked contradistinction
with a linear current of electricity under the same circumstances."
This 'uncharged radiation' was Faraday's state of 'no magnetic action' a
state of magnetization that is 'unstrained'; a state of hydrogen, which is
light, that is perfect diamagnetism, explained in the next section.
In 1949, Maria-Goeppert-Mayer, mathematically, placed all of the
discovered 'particles' into the nucleus from which Rutherford had
proposed they had come. Goeppert-Mayer proposed that the protons
and neutrons formed 'layers' in the nucleus that unpeel like an 'onion,'
forming nuclear shells. Her mathematics proposed that any element
having one of what she called her "magic numbers," i.e., either protons
or neutrons of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126 within the element, then it
was a stable element. In collaboration with German physicist, Jensen,
Goeppert-Mayer co-published, "Elementary Theory Of Nuclear Shell
Structure," which won her the Nobel Prize in 1963. 23 The atomic
nucleus, as such, has been the accepted theory since.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
“Scientists: The Lives and Works of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 2, pgs.
399-404; Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996).
23
28
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
‘VIOLET' AND 'ULTRAVIOLET' CATASTROPHIES
William Herschel (1738-1822) ** determined through experimentation
that heat is spread out in a spectrum, as is light. 24 He placed a
thermometer at various places in the spectrum and noted the
temperatures. Herschel expected that heat would be the most intense in
the middle of the spectrum and fall away at either end. Instead, the
temperature rose steadily as he progressed away from violet, and
reached its highest point at the extreme red. This experiment
demonstrated that as temperatures get colder energy intensity, i.e.
wavelengths, get shorter!
Herschel’s findings have since been ignored, because circa 1847
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) began working on the heat and energy
of certain gases. He had become especially interested in the work of
French physicist Jacques Charles, who had found, mathematically, that
for every degree centigrade below zero a gas was cooled, the volume of
the gas would decrease by 1/273. The implications of Charles’
proposal, was that at -273º C the volume of the gas would be zero.
Experimental proof was never obtained to substantiate or not to
_________________________________________________________
**Note: Herschel pioneered discoveries in nearly every branch of astronomy;
he classified star clusters and nebulae, proposing an evolutionary pattern for
their classes, cataloging 2,500 of them. His method for calculating the size of
stars led to the field of quantative stellar photometry (the study of the intensity
of stars’ light), and he confirmed that infrared rays do exist. He discovered the
planet Uranus and two of its satellites, which gained him appointment as Royal
Astronomer by King George III. He, also, identified two satellites of the planet
Jupiter. Additionally, he developed a cosmogony of the Universe, proposing
that stars cluster together over time, and produced evidence for the powers of
attraction between stars. Ibid 3, pg. 441-447.
24
Ibid 3, pgs. 59, 90, W. Herschel, ‘Investigation of the Powers of the
Prismatic Colours to Heat and Illuminate Objects; with Remarks, that prove the
different Refrangibility of radiant Heat.’ To which is added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of large
Apertures and high magnifying Powers,’ Phil. Trans., l800, Part II, 255 ff.
‘Experiments on the Refrangibility of the Invisible Rays of the Sun,’ ibid., 284
ff. ‘Experiments on the Solar and on the Terrestrial Rays that occasion Heat;
with a comparative View of the Laws to which Light and Heat, or rather the
Rays which occasion them, are subject in order to determine whether they are
the same or different,’ ibid., 293 ff, Part III, 437 ff.
29
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
substantiate Charles’ proposal, however, in 1848, Thomson theorized
(also mathematically, but also never observed) that when the
temperature of a gas is reduced, so is the energy level of the atoms in
the gas; as the atoms move less they take up less room, decreasing the
volume of the gas. 25 At -273ºC the energy level of the atoms, Thomson
proposed reaches zero, and the atoms stop moving. Present-day BoseEinstein Condensate experiments, which utilize laser techniques to
condense atoms in magnetic traps, however, are indicating that atoms
remain very active and difficult to control at ultra-cold levels. BEC
experiments are shown later in this text, two of which used hydrogen,
and obtained what the experimenters refer to as a ‘Doppler-sensitive’
ultraviolet state that ‘hovers at zero.’ 26, 27
Thomson supported his explanation of Jacques Charles’ theory by
developing an ‘absolute temperature scale,’ later renamed the ‘Kelvin
scale’ of absolute temperatures, which was accepted without much
opposition, since Thomson had already gained favor among his
colleagues through his work in establishing the age of the Earth (albeit
wrong), and had also performed experiments in collaboration with
James Prescott Joule** to explain gas behavior. The Thomson and
_________________________________________________________
25
“Scientists: The Lives and Works of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 3, pgs.
905-910; Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996).
26
"Bose-Einstein Condensation of Atomic Hydrogen," Phys. Rev. Lett., Vol.
81, No. 18 (2 November 1998), Dale G. Fried, Thomas C. Killian, Lorenz
Willmann, David Landhuis, Stephen C. Moss, Daniel Kleppner, and Thomas J.
Greytak, Department of Physics and Center for Materials Science and
Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts 02139.
27
“Bose-Einstein condensation in atomic hydrogen,” T. J. Greytak, D.
Kleppner, D. G. Fried, T. C. Killian 2, L. Willmann, D. Landhuis, S. C. Moss,
Physics Department and Center for Materials Science and Engineering,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,Cambridge, MA
02139, USA
(2000).
**Thomson had been a child prodigy, entering college at age ten, he completed
his degree in only a few years, he finished second in his class, subsequently
enrolled for post-graduate studies at Cambridge University, and later the
University of Paris while still in his teens. His father was a respected
mathematician, and professor at the University of Glasgow (where Thomson
first attended at age ten). Thomson, therefore, was held in awe among his
colleagues early in his life. He is most famous for his development of the
Kelvin scale, which he had accomplished by age twenty-four.
30
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Charles hypothesis, therefore, was incorporated with Boyle’s Law to
form what became known as the ‘Combined Gas Laws.’ Boyle’s Law,
which was established through experimental observations, states that at
a given temperature [which would include any temperature], the
volume occupied by a gas is inversely proportionate to the pressure. If
the pressure is increased, the volume [of gas] decreases. Conversely, if
the pressure is decreased, the volume of gas expands and increases.
This would mean that in a vacuum, where there is no pressure, gas
expansion increases the volume. As shown in the previous section,
Röntgen obtained x-rays by evacuating vacuum chambers, which gave
room for expansion. Expansion increased volume, and frequency, as
well.
Prior to the establishment of the Kelvin scale, Thomson and Joule had
established through experiment that when gas is introduced into a
vacuum it expands and cools (Joule-Thomson Effect), and if cooled
enough the gas will convert to liquid (liquefaction). Since this finding
is a complete contradiction to the ‘Combined Gas Laws’ and the Kelvin
scale, which proposes that the temperature and pressure at which the
volume of a gas is measured are the conditions of measurement (PV/T),
we can assume that the ‘Combined Gas Laws’ apply only to the gas
behavior in a closed environment, or confined medium, e.g., a leyden
jar, but not a vacuum. Included in the Combined Gas Law is the
statement that ‘decreased pressure increases the volume of gas, and the
gas expands,’ which is what was observed to occur in the JouleThomson Effect; however, the gas cools, instead of heating as is
proposed in the Combined Gas Laws. The formula (PV/T) predicts that
with decreased pressure and increase in volume, the temperature, or
heat will increase, instead of expanding and cooling as the JouleThomson Effect had established through experimental findings.
Boyle’s Law, which had been established through experimental
observation, complies with the Joule-Thomson Effect; so the
‘Combined Gas Laws’ are not a combination at all; but rather Boyle’s
original Law was ‘lost’ to the Kelvin/Charles formula. The problem lies
in the interpretation of temperature. Boyle’s Law is not specific
concerning temperature, so it is interpreted to mean that when there is
temperature, i.e., any temperature above absolute zero, the volume
increases. However, Boyle’s Law infers that the volume of a gas is
opposite to pressure. At high pressure, the volume is low or nil; at low
31
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
pressure, as in a vacuum, the volume is high; just as he stated, the
‘inverse’ of one another.
There is no provision in the Combined Gas Laws for the special’
conditions that the Joule-Thomson Effect, or expansion and cooling in
an evacuated medium would require, which should be at normal, or
near ‘normal temperature ranges. Since the laws conflict, the JouleThomson Effect, being a separate law from the Combined Gas Laws, is
usually ignored. The Combined Gas Laws propose through formula
that heat is always positive, because from ‘absolute zero’ forward, as
gas expands, the volume of gas increases, along with heat. The
Combined Gas Laws, also, would seem to be in violation of the Law of
the Conservation of Energy [and mass], in that there is a creation of
energy and mass occurring from, seemingly, from nowhere through the
expansion process. Boyle’s Law and the Joule-Thomson Effect, at
least imply that the ‘process of expansion’ increases the volume of a
gas and relieves pressure, which cools and ‘conserves’ it, whereas
increased pressure produces heat, diminishing the volume.
By 1816, heat was widely considered to be a material entity;
hypothesized by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier to be a ‘caloric’; an
imponderable fluid. Heat, might have explained the increase in volume
through the expansion process, but the ‘caloric’ was proposed to be
undetectable because of its ‘balanced’ state. It lay latent within
ponderable matter (hence the name ‘imponderable fluid’), appearing in
ways other than temperature, only exhibiting its association with
ponderable matter through chemical combinations. It was proposed
that the ‘caloric’ could exist within the interstices of a material ‘body.’
If the ‘caloric’ particles were mutually repulsive, the increase in
temperature meant expansion had occurred from its ‘balanced’ state. In
this change of state, the latent heat was absorbed, increasing distance
(and motion) between particles of the caloric-matter. 28 (Thomson’s
Kelvin scale (1848), proposes the opposite; ultra-cold temperatures,
instead of heat, causes gas particles to spread out and become
motionless).
In 1857 Joseph Black discovered ‘latent heat.’ Black had observed the
slowness of snow melting in the spring sunshine, which led him to
_________________________________________________________
28
Ibid 3, pgs. 54-55
32
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
investigate the heat absorbed or released when any chemical change
takes place. He recognized that when ice passes from solid to liquid
state, a considerable amount of heat is absorbed, without any change in
temperature. However, when he reversed the process, heat was
released, indicating that the heat had always been present, however, in
latent form. Black reasoned that if heat were a fluid, then, instead of a
result of the motion of resistive particles (point atoms), a chemical
reaction would occur. Water could be viewed as a compound of ice, as
well as the ‘fluid’ of heat. Heat, Black had found, is intimately
connected with matter, however, unmanifest as temperature, which
supported Antoine Laurent Lavoisier’s views on the combustibility of
oxygen and the ‘caloric’ as a state of ‘balance.’
The volume increase of an expanded gas, as proposed through the
Kelvin scale, we can assume then, was ignored as a conservation
violation, because it was considered that no violation had occurred.
The increase in gas volume could be explained through the mechanism
of the imponderable fluid; the caloric, which then became ‘latent heat,’
and the current explanation. Heat is not a gas. Heat is the result of the
motion of the gas, and through deflection, pressurization or
compression of gas its resistance to the change generates heat (negative
Joule-Thomson Effect); enough heat can result in the burning of the
gas. Supposedly, the imponderables were, eventually, dismissed, but
the fact is, they have remained; however, now they are,
euphemistically, referred to as ‘quantum fluids.’ The ‘latent heat’
explanation remained, as well, because gases do generate heat through
motion. Heat; however, is a result of motion, not a ‘cause’ waiting to
occur. I propose that what happened in the Black experiment was that
on that given day, heat was not a factor, because the atmospheric
pressure was nominal. The gases in the air had expanded and cooled,
due to the cold temperature, and as a solid, the ice, too, was in an
expanded state. All temperatures were, more than likely, the same, i.e.,
around 32º in the air and the ice, so there was very little, if any, heat
effect or melting.
UTC Theory proposes that the combustibility of oxygen is gained early
in the Earth’s atmosphere. The ozone (O3), we know, absorbs
ultraviolet radiation high in the Earth’s atmosphere. UTC theory
proposes that the oxygen (O2) in our air product is a fissioned product
of the ozone layer (the nitrogen N14 is a fissioned product, as well).
33
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
The oxygen in the air product emits its ‘absorbed dose’ of ultraviolet
radiation as hydrogen in acid and base reactions.
The whole
radioactive decay process centers upon this combustive process. Heat
cancels magnetism, and the heavier the radioactive decay element, the
more combustible it has become, because it is less magnetic, or less
emitting and absorbing, and combustibility takes over as parity is lost
(more concerning parity in PART III.); the magnetic forces become
weak, and matter is, therefore, a poor conductor, absorbing the energy
that it inducts from the medium, and emitting very little, heat or
combustibility begins to dominate, and fission occurs. In interstellar
space, a super-nova event is the result of just this occurrence. In
chemistry, advanced radioactive decay, or fissioning of the radioactive
element is the result. All matter emits ‘characteristic x-rays,’ as well as
gamma radiation, because these radiations are what the H0 is as an
energy source in the interstellar medium. Albeit, H0 begins at
ultraviolet frequency, the expansion of this state, which was shown in
the last chapter, results in the production of x-rays and gamma radiation.
This energy exists within all matter, as explained in the cosmology that
begins in PART III.
While the subject is back on radioactivity, it might as well be said, here,
the spontaneous emission of neutrons from seemingly nowhere, too,
violates Conservation Laws. Enrico Fermi, who postulated that
radioactive decay is the result of neutrons that decay in the nucleus of
an element toward the formation of protons and electrons, 29 was aware
that his proposal violated conservation laws, as were his colleagues. In
order to ‘get around’ the violation, Fermi proposed (at the suggestion of
Wolfgang Pauli) that the nucleus of an element contains a ‘neutrino’: a
‘smaller’ neutron than the one that decays toward the production of a
proton and electron, but the neutrino still caused a violation of the
conservation laws. Fermi’s neutrino hypothesis was preserved when
Lise Meitner, along with her nephew, Otto Frisch, provided an
explanation for Fermi’s neutron decay hypothesis. Meitner gave a
mathematical explanation for the spontaneous fissioning (a term
'borrowed' from chemistry) of Uranium, which had been chemically
performed in Berlin by Meitner’s former colleague, Otto Hahn and his
________________________________________________
“Scientists: The Lives and Works Of 150 Scientists,” Vol. 1, pg. 287;
Editors: Peggy Saari and Stephen Allison (1996).
29
34
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
colleague, Fritz Strassman (published in Naturwissenschaften in early
January, 1939). The ‘balanced’ equations put forth by Meitner
indicated that there could be spontaneous production of neutrons
through the fissioning of the original neutron, which produced a chain
reaction of fission producing thousands of others. She calculated that
the energy associated with pushing two positively charged nuclear
fragments apart to be approximately 200 million electron volts (MeV)
per uranium atom. By comparison, the most energetic chemical
reactions release approximately 5 eV per atom. But from where was
the energy required to separate the uranium nucleus coming? The
existing data on the masses of the elements showed that the sum of the
masses of the smaller product nuclei [neutrino] was less than the mass
of uranium. Meitner used Einstein’s equation E = mc2 to calculate the
energy associated with this mass difference, which Einstein had
postulated to be the ‘nuclear binding energy’; the energy Meitner
proposed could be associated with pushing two fission fragments apart.
Einstein’s calculations had revealed that the energy equivalent to the
mass difference was equal to 200 MeV! Otto Frisch verified the results
at his laboratory at the Neils Bohr Institute in Copenhagen.
Meitner’s explanation; however, was for the fissioning of heavy
radioactive decay elements through neutron bombardment. In other
words, her explanation was for a neutron induced reaction; the neutrons
were provided to cause the chain reaction to occur! Spontaneous
fission is another thing entirely, and only occurs in the heaviest
radioactive elements, e.g., Uranium. The neutrino; however, had crept
in through the back door, accepted as fact, because it could be
explained as having come from the ‘nuclear binding energy.’ There are
questions that still remain, however, especially in how lighter
radioactive decay elements undergo decay, if it is through neutron
decay, then from where is the neutron derived? If there is a ‘nuclear
binding energy’ then why is this energy source, which is ‘binding,’ or
possibly cohering and holding the particles together, ‘pushing’ the
nuclei apart through spontaneous fissioning? See the contradictions?
Neutrons do not spontaneously generate off or from themselves,
causing a nuclear chain reaction. We do know that from this premise
the atomic bomb was devised and exploded quite well; however, the
bomb was actually built upon the premise of spontaneous fission, i.e., it
was developed from the premise of spontaneous fission (not neutron
bombardment). Fermi built the ‘first self-sustaining chain reaction’
35
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
with a pile of Uranium 235; the natural radioactivity of which caused
the Uranium to split. If neutrons [or neutrinos] are generated in
spontaneous fission, and the neutrons comprise a ‘nuclear binding
energy,’ then from where has it originated? If the ‘binding energy’ is
composed of a ‘smaller neutron,’ from where was it derived? The fact
that neutrinos are little neutrons renders them neutral, which serves to
keep the energy ‘conserved,’ but the energy and mass conservation
laws are founded upon the premise that all matter comes from an
‘already created [conserved energy] source that, simply, takes new
form’ All other energy does not, necessarily, have to be conserved
along with it (and there is a lot of confusion about that). Using a
mathematical formula to keep the newly introduced energy substance
conserved, causes it to remain in phase with the ‘already created
source,’ but conserving the 'newly introduced' energy source does not
make it the originating, already created energy source, or the first
cause! ‘Photons’ are a good example of this usage of the conservation
concept to advance one’s theories. Photons, too, are proposed to be
massless, chargeless entities, like neutrinos. The ‘binding energy,’ too,
was never explained as to its derivation. These are all good
explanations, but they are just different ‘words’ (misnomers, because
they lack experimental evidence—but that is another subject; there is
always someone who ‘spots’ these elusive particles that spring from
mathematical scenarios) that substitute for the ether. These ‘balanced
energy sources,’ are carried into mainstream science, and create a
plethora of other hypotheses that are, inherently, (by way of the first
violation) more violations of the conservation laws. For this reason, no
one has been able to establish, or complete a Unified Field Theory.
Our gas laws are intertwined into all chemical, physical (physics) and
nuclear theory.
The German physicist, Wilhelm Wien, whose
investigations on blackbody radiation led Max Planck to formulate his
quantum theory; the 'constant' that Bohr used to support the Rutherford
atomic model, was developed from 'Wien's Displacement Law,' which
states that the wavelength of radiation emitted by a blackbody is
inversely proportionate to the temperature of the body (here we go
again with Kelvin's scale). Wien's Displacement Law proposes that at
low temperatures a blackbody will radiate energy at low-long
wavelength (microwaves). In the Wien analogy, as the temperature
rises, the volume of gas increases, and the wavelength becomes
'smaller' (shorter), and the color of the emitted light changes to orange,
36
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
yellow and then white. Wien developed a mathematical formula to
show a relationship between the amount of energy radiated by a
blackbody at each wavelength as it relates to the various temperatures.
He published his theories in 1896; however, his complex equations did
not work well for long wavelengths (low temperatures, and now we
know why). In 1900, Max Planck introduced his 'quanta' concept,
which, supposedly, solved the radiation problem in the Wien theory. 30
The Planck theory, which is an extension of the Wien analogy, is
predicated on the Combined Gas Laws, or the Kelvin scale. The
Combined Gas Laws propose that cooling occurs from increased
pressure (not expansion as in the Joule-Thomson Effect), causing the
volume to get smaller, or ‘contract.’ So, this concept of gas
'contraction,' which is an effect from cooling, according to The
Combined Gas Laws, has been applied, generally, to all gas conditions,
which are simultaneously 'particle' conditions, even as it exists in a
vacuum. Therefore, we consider that the volume of gas is ‘contracted’
to the smallest bit of matter; the electron, which Bohr showed,
mathematically, could exist in a ground state. Since contraction is
related to cooling, then, this smallest bit of matter as an 'electron' gas,
would also be the coldest state possible; absolute zero, which according
to the Combined Gas Laws, is a state of gas that is diminished in
frequency and volume. Does gas contract to a ground state electron,
and why? An 'annihilation' of energy is just as much a conservation
violation as an increase of energy from, seemingly nowhere. Does
energy do the opposite, expand and grow in volume into a resonance,
or high-energy condition that is high heat? If so, the expansion of
hydrogen in the interstellar medium would be a very hot situation,
instead of the cold one that it is.
_________________________________________________________
30
Ibid 29, Vol. 3, pg. 762.
37
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
In the NIST graph,31 shown below, there is a progressive narrowing as
flux diminishes in the ultraviolet range of light, which is between 300400 nm. The graph, published in the ‘Journal of Research of the National
Institute of Standards and Technology,’ shows densities of state in the
ultraviolet range. The densities range from 10 8 to 10 2. UTC Theory proposes
that H0 would be at the peak, or highest point in the graph; the lowest density
element, yet at UV frequency. As this state, hydrogen is a free neutron fuses,
increasing density; however, the energy is not ‘spent,’ but is stored and
‘conserved’ in this condition (zero-flux), and maintains its frequency level of
UV.
The NIST graph, shown, was published in the ‘Journal of Research of
the National Institute of Standards and Technology,’ in a publication
intended to report possibilities for error in the performance of different
meter instrumentation used to measure UV, and address common
sources of measurement errors using meter apparatus. The group
proposes that large errors can occur due to out-of-band, non-linear, and
non-ideal geometric or spatial response of the UV meters. The graph
shows the differences measured with two different devices, cited as
_________________________________________________________
“Sources of Error in UV Radiation Measurements,” ‘Journal of Research of
the National Institute of Standards and Technology,’ Volume 106, Number 4,
(July–August 2001); T. C. Larason and C. L. Cromer.
31
38
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Meter A and Meter B in the photo. There is a standing wave shown in
the graph at 300-400 nm, which shows densities of state in the
ultraviolet range. Densities range from 10 8 to 10 2
UTC Theory proposes that the progressive narrowing at 300-400 nm in
the NIST graph, shown above, is an increase in density as flux
decreases; however, as can be seen, even though there is a diminution
of flux, and an increase in density, the frequency is still maintained
within the ultraviolet range of light. The frequency has not diminished
with increased density and decreased flux!! The ultra-cold hydrogen
experiments, shown later, which are the conditions similar to the
interstellar medium, imposed extreme conditions upon hydrogen, which
included the laserization of it at radio-frequencies, and yet, a part of the
hydrogen maintained a frequency in the ultraviolet frequency range,
which the experimenters reported to be normal hydrogen. The ultracold experiments, also, depict a narrowing, or contraction that occurs in
this range of light, which hovers at 'zero.'
It is assumed from the Combined Gas Laws that a diminishing flux
means that there is diminution of frequency to low-long wavelength
radiation (microwaves), along with temperature decrease. The volume
of gas contracts, or diminishes, as well. The narrowing in the NIST
graph can serve to prove this point; but 'contraction,' which UTC
Theory proposes is due to increased density, does not affect frequency.
The contraction, therefore, could be due to the shortening of the
wavelength. As can be seen in the graph, no matter what the flux and
density state, the frequency is maintained at ultraviolet, which is
exactly what happened in the ultra-cold experiments. UTC Theory
proposes that at what would be ‘zero flux’ in the graph is, yet, another
increase in density, and that the radiation has entered another phase; a
coherent spectrum of light that is vacuum radiation. At the zero-flux,
or zero oscillation point, the high density gas is neutral; a highfrequency radiation that exceeds the ultraviolet phase shown in the
graph.
UTC Theory proposes that when gas is introduced into a vacuum tube,
it expands and cools in its resonance condition, which is a vacuum
ultraviolet phase of light. The light has returned to its original, normal
equilibrium state as hydrogen (H0); a zero-flux state of light that is nonrefractive black light. The hydrogen is a free neutron that begins to
39
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
fuse, storing and conserving energy in its zero-point condition. Fusion,
or storage, increases volume, or density, causing the light to become
'absolutely magnetic'; it is an ideal blackbody, and a super-conducting
state of light, i.e., it is an ideal radiator as it generates more of the same
(hydrogen H0) through hysteresis loss (magnetic). It is hydrogen in its
purest, original form; a state of light that is also a state of perfect
diamagnetism (see below); a non-polar state of light (remember,
Faraday found that diamagnetism is a non-polar state of magnetism).
The light has no-electronegativity, because at zero flux, it is a state of
light where there is no resistance, which gives it its super-conducting
potential. This phase of light marks the beginning of a coherent
spectrum of light; non-refractive black light, which is vacuum radiation,
where oscillation or flux has ceased to be, and the light is in phase and
coherent in its zero condition. As coherent radiation, it is a strong,
attractive force (magnetic permeability, which is density is the
attractive or coherent force. Increased magnetic permeability has
increased volume, or density.); it is 'all-absorbing' due to its coherency
(attractive force due to magnetic density or permeability), which
increases its frequency, and yet, the energy maintains its 'zero' flux
condition (the attractive forces increase frequencies, however, flux does
not occur, because the strong attractive forces have taken over). The
light is an ideal blackbody that emits radiation, 32, 33, 34 only, when it is
heated. Heat is a factor of resistances, and particle production (as
outlined in PART III-PART X.).
_______________________________________________________________________________________
“Landau Diamagnetism Revisited,” (29 Jun 2001) Sushanta Dattagupta,
Arun M. Jayannavar and Narendra Kumar; S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic
Sciences, Block JD, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700 098, India Institute of
Physics, Sachivalaya Marg, Bhubaneswar 751 005, India Raman Research
Institute, Bangalore 560 080, India.
33
“Landau Diamagnetism and Magnetization of Interacting Disordered
Conductors,” Gilles Montambaux, December 19, 2000; Laboratoire de
Physique des Solides, Associé au CNRS, Université Paris Sud, 91405 Orsay,
France.
34
“Landau diamagnetism within nonextensive statistical thermodynamics,”
(12 Oct 2000)İsmail Sökmen, Fevz Büyükkiliç Doğan Demirhan, Department
of Physics, Faculty of Arts&Sciences, Dokuz Eylül, University,Alsancak Ismir,
Turkey.
32
40
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
PERFECT DIAMAGNETISM
Since the electrical resistance is zero in a perfect
diamagnetic medium, super-currents are generated in
any mass that forms, i.e., in the event magnetic buildup, currents are generated to resist change, and the
currents begin a process of particle production as
described in Part V., below. The currents repel the
diamagnetic medium in which it exists. The currents
the external [diamagnetic] field strength by
producing magnetic poles that mirror the magnetic
potential of the permanent diamagnetic medium, and
the repulsion provides ‘lift,’ or levitation to the mass
formed.
Since the levitating currents generated
within the super-conducting medium meet with no
resistance, they can adjust almost instantly to
maintain the levitation. The object (which becomes a
magnet, as well) can be moved, put into oscillation,
and the levitation currents will adjust to keep it in
suspension.
41
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
PROBLEMS PRESENTED FROM THE GAS LAWS
Subsequent gas related theories have arisen since the Combined Gas
Laws were formulated; the Wien Displacement Law, Planck's Constant
(which he called 'lucky guess), etc., are carried forward from the
'conflicts' that the gas laws presented. ‘Fermi gases,’ which are
composed of non-interacting ‘Fermions,’ having ‘Fermi energy (EF)’
levels that are the 'smallest' possible increases that can be allowed in
ground state energy (due to the Pauli Exclusion Principle), follow
‘Fermi-Dirac statistics; all are founded upon conflicting gas laws.
Fermi's neutrino, as has been shown, caused a conservation violation
(of which everyone was aware) as a 'creation' of energy from,
seemingly, nowhere is intimately connected to the Combined Gas Laws
as a 'contracted' energy source; one that is neutral instead of electrical,
and it was the 'luckiest guess' of all. One can see why a completed
Unified Field Theory has not been obtained; however, it has all become
so very confusing! All of these ‘gas functions,’ which are also believed
to be electron functioning, because the gas contracts into a 'smallest,' or
tiny 'unit'; the 'quanta,' are founded on conflicting gas laws. No one has
known why the gas, which became a 'particle,' would contract (the
neutrino is a neutral 'contracted' gas/particle).
The Remy, et. al. 35 experiment, shown later, expands argon in a
vacuum, which the group proposes produces highly energetic EEE’s
(one can see from the above why they are referred to as ‘extremely
energetic electrons.’ UTC theory proposes that the EEE's are free
neutrons; hydrogen H0). As pressure is reapplied to the gas in the
Remy, et. al. experiment the argon is reinstituted, as well as helium and
neon produced. UTC theory proposes that the argon expanded and
cooled (Joule-Thomson Effect), where it was conserved in its ‘zeropoint’ state; a high-frequency state that is resonance. The overall
energy is in an equilibrium phase; a steady-state condition that is
motionless, and as such, the light has gone back into its original,
normal state, which is zero (H0); it is a free neutron (H0) and the
_________________________________________________________
35
Ibid 15
**Note: See in Epilogue, “An Attempt Towards A Chemical Conception Of
The Ether,” By Professor D. Mendeleeff ; Translated from the Russian by
George Kamensky (Imperial Mint, St. Petersburg) Longmans, Green & Co, NY
(1904).
42
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
lightest element.** This state of hydrogen fuses easily, into coherent
radiation that becomes denser through the fusion process. Energy and
mass are conserved and stored in this condition; zero. In its fused state,
the hydrogen (H0) experiences little or no flux, which is the reason for
its inertia, and lack of particle production; it is non-refractive black
light, and an ideal gas (the hydrogen H0 is an ideal gas from which all
of the nobles are derived, and should be added to the periodic table of
elements). The fissioning of this energy source causes particle
production, and heat, if the gas is deflected, or pressurized in any way,
it begins to burn through resistance (radioactive decay occurs through
this process, as described in Part III, herein). In the Remy, et. al. 36
experiment, pressurization of the ‘dark,’ or black light phase, caused
the argon used in the experiment to be reinstituted, and when pressure
was increased further, helium and neon formed as well, which UTC
theory proposes are the fissioned products, and constituent parts of the
argon (helium and neon are, also, nobles). In other words, the
increased pressure produced particles, and also broke the argon apart
into smaller noble gas elements. The volume did get smaller in this
respect, i.e., the volume of gas, argon, fissioned into smaller elements,
but nothing contracted. As the volume of gas expanded to what UTC
theory proposes is the zero-point state for hydrogen, the frequency
increased. At the zero-point phase, the hydrogen is non-refractive
(zero-flux) black light, and completely inert, and non-particle
producing; vacuum ultraviolet. As such, vacuum ultraviolet is a
vacuum. This phase begins at the end of the normal ultraviolet
spectrum, and yet, is still part of that spectrum (see NIST chart). This
energy, H0, is a conserved energy source that lies latent within matter
as the ‘space’ between the particles that it forms, and the force
(attractive/coherent) and energy that holds the particles together. UTC
Theory proposes that the Bose-Einstein Condensate experiments, which
are ultra-cold experiments, shown later, will prove these points. A
‘zero-point’ state of ultraviolet was obtained with the use of hydrogen.
The zero-state ultraviolet in these experiments ‘replenishes’ (UTC
Theory proposes ‘replenishment’ is possible, because the ‘ultraviolet
hovering at zero’ is stored, or a conserved energy source) a ‘broadened
current,’ which establishes ‘balance,’ or equilibrium, within the whole
reaction. As many other cited experiments indicate, however, e.g.,
_________________________________________________________
36
Ibid 15
43
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Mills, et. al., 37 this ‘zero’ flux state of hydrogen (Mills’ hydrogen is at
vuv frequency) can be obtained at any temperature, and reach high
density states, yet maintain a high frequency level, because energy is
conserved and 'stored' at zero.
The gas tends to remain steady at zero-flux; motionless, yet at high
velocity, it is an uncharged state of gas, H0 (like all the nobles, it has no
electro- negativity. As a free neutron it fuses easily, as the lightest state
of hydrogen; however, fusion increases its density range and chemical
potential. It is an ideal gas, and an ‘ideal blackbody’ from which all
matter is derived. In the vacuum tube, its expanded state, which is high
frequency continues to be identified with low-long wavelength
radiation; absorption or 'drop', and also in opposite terms, as extremely
energetic electrons (EEE’s).
UTC Theory proposes that Thomson’s measurement of the electron
was close to the same magnitude as the hydrogen ion because it is a
hydrogen ion; an 'uncharged' hydrogen ion. There are two states of
hydrogen at the cathode and anode; the ‘glow discharges’ are H+ and
H-, charged according to the charging at the plates, i.e., since the metal
plates are charged-up, they attract (induct) the energies within the tube
that are nearest (the Inverse Square Law applies), and the ions become
‘charged’ according to the charging at the plate to which they have
been attracted. The dark spaces nearest the plates are ‘hard currents,’
behaving as solids (Mossbauer Effect), they form boundary layers in
the tube that are saturation layers. The energy, overall, is grounded to
the plates, and the dark spaces are where the charged plates have
dumped their load; or discharged. The glow occurs from recoil from
the reaction, which keeps the glow portion stimulated, or ionized, and
charged according to the charge at the plates. The energies are all in a
resonance condition; highly excited. The ‘glow discharge’ is a state
that is stimulated emission, and the dark portions nearest the plates are
saturation states, where magnetic permeability is highest and the
radiation coherent and inert; high density, or energy concentrations,
_________________________________________________________
“Observation of Extreme Ultraviolet Hydrogen Emission from
Incandescently Heated Hydrogen Gas with Strontium that Produced an
Optically Measured Power Balance that was 4000 Times the Control,” Randell
L. Mills, Mark Nansteel, Ying Lu; BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton
Road, Cranbury, NJ 08512
37
44
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
where the hydrogen has fused into a non-motional, non-refractive
condition. The glow discharge, or charged column is stimulated to
emission. The dark portions beyond the Crookes dark space and the
Aston dark space in the tube is ‘drop’ radiation, or ‘fall’ that occurs
from recoil, and radiation is deposited into these channels, which are
decay channels.
In 1913 Thomson was investigating a new gas called X3 (atomic weight
3: tritium), a polymerized form of hydrogen. He used the positive ray
method to detect helium and neon because it is more sensitive than
spectral analysis and provides much more definite data. There was no
apparent connection between the type of gas used to fill the tubes and
the appearance of the new gases (X3 line 3 in H, N, He, O, and air; Ne
line 20 in H, N, O, HCl, and air). Another line often appeared
corresponding to atomic weight 10; it is probably due to neon with two
charges of electricity, but brighter than expected. 38 The experimental
apparatus was a large glass bulb fitted with aluminum electrodes; the
discharge was produced by an induction coil. Thomson described it as
follows:
“The positive rays for the analysis of the gases were produced in a
vessel containing gases at a low pressure. I shall call this the testing
vessel; the vessel in which the various processes for generating X3,
were tried (the experimenting chamber) was sealed on to the testing
vessel, but separated from it by a tap. Thus the pressure in the
experimenting chamber was not restricted to being the same as that in
the testing vessel, but might have the value which seemed most
appropriate for any particular type of experiment.
After these
experiments were over, the tap was turned and some of the gas from the
experimenting chamber let into the testing vessel; a photograph was
then taken, and by comparing it with one taken before turning on the
tap the new gases present in the experiment chamber could be
detected.”
Thomson determined that the hydrogen emitted was from the electrodes,
and concluded:
_________________________________________________________
38
Thomson, J.J.: Nature 91 (2774): 333-337 (29 May 1913); "Further
Applications... of Positive Rays." 67 Thomson, J.J.: Proc. Royal Soc. London
101-A (711): 290-299 (1 July 1922); "On the Analysis by Positive Rays... &c"
45
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
“These gases are present in the metal independently of the
bombardment, and are liberated by the action of the kathode rays. I
would also like to direct attention to the analogy between the effects
just described and an everyday experience with discharge tubes─I
mean the difficulty of getting these tubes free from hydrogen when the
test is made by a sensitive method like that of the positive rays. Though
you may heat the glass of the tube to melting point, may dry the gases
by liquid air or cooled charcoal, and free the gases you let into the tube
as carefully as you will from hydrogen, you will still get the hydrogen
lines by the positive ray method, even when the bulb has been running
several hours a day for nearly a year. The only exception is when
oxygen is kept continuously running through the tube, and this, I think,
is due, not to lack of liberation of hydrogen, but to the oxygen
combining with the small quantity of hydrogen liberated, just as it
combines with the mercury vapor and causes the disappearance of the
mercury lines. I think this production of hydrogen in the tube is quite
analogous to the production of X3, of helium, and of neon.” 39
Thomson’s conclusions drawn from the above experiment are
extremely important. First, his conclusion that hydrogen is ‘liberated’
from the metallic properties of the plates has resulted in many presentday experiments that are proposing the same. UTC Theory proposes
that the hydrogen ‘liberated’ in the Thomson experiment [and all of the
others] is derived from the cathode rays. As described previously, the
plates are ‘charged up,’ so the ‘charged load’ is dumped onto the
cathode rays, which in turn, causes the rays to peak into a resonance
condition, which UTC Theory proposes is where the hydrogen is,
actually, obtained.
Several important points need to be made here, which is that Thomson
and Röntgen, originally, believed this phase of light, i.e., cathode and
x-rays were hydrogen ions, but Thomson changed the perspective of
this vacuum radiation to one of ‘particles’ when he deflected the
energy, as has already been described. Our idea of an ion is that it is an
excited, charged state of light, i.e., it is positively or negatively
charged, and attracted to its opposite charge in a vacuum tube. UTC
Theory proposes that in an open medium, or in a vacuum, energy
expands and cools (Joule-Thomson Effect), it does not go down in
_________________________________________________________
39
Ibid 38
46
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
frequency as it expands (cathode rays and x-rays are the examples), but
rather, expansion increases the volume and frequency of the radiation.
At resonance, the energy has returned to its original, normal, steadystate condition, as an ‘uncharged’ hydrogen ion (H0), it is a free
neutron; a zero-flux condition (flux is electrical resistance). As a ‘free
neutron’ the hydrogen fuses easily, becoming more and more coherent
and attractive as a (magnetic) force. Since it is a non-charged state of
light, the neutrons are not composed of positively charged protons and
negatively charged electrons that cancel one another in charge. Fusion
increases the density (magnetic) and frequency level of the radiation,
taking it into vacuum uv, x-rays and gamma radiation. Increased
magnetization, or magnetic permeability, increases coherency, which is
attractive force; the wavelengths shorten, until there is little or no flux
or resistance left, so the radiation cools and becomes non-refractive
black light, completely inert; and an ideal gas. As it fuses, the neutrons
form coherent radiations; and the energy is stored and conserved at
‘zero.’ 40 It is this radiation source from which all other mass is derived,
and the reason that Thomson remarks, “ I think this production of
hydrogen in the tube is quite analogous to the production of X 3, of
helium, and of neon.” “There was no apparent connection between the
type of gas used to fill the tubes and the appearance of the new gases
(X3 line 3 in H, N, He, O, and air; Ne line 20 in H, N, O, HCl, and air).
Another line often appeared corresponding to atomic weight 10; it is
probably due to neon with two charges of electricity, but brighter than
expected.”
UTC Theory proposes that interstellar space is, primarily, composed of
this state of hydrogen (H0), and the cosmology that begins in PART III,
shows that the elements Thomson obtained in his tritium experiment
are the beginning stages of mass formation in space from this state of
hydrogen, as it has fused and then fissions toward the formation of all
noble gases, as well as other states of hydrogen, i.e., HI, HII, etc.. The
nobles, too, are fissioning toward the production of oxygen, primarily,
with some nitrogen, as well. Interstellar space is a strong nuclear force;
free neutrons that have fused, and stored as coherent radiation that
encompasses a black light spectrum that begins in the ultraviolet range
_________________________________________________________
“Scientific American,” July 2001 issue, “Frozen Light” by Dr. Lene
Vestergaard Hau. [Dr. Hau is the Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics
and Professor of Physics at Harvard University; also, head of the Atom Cooling
Group at the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass].
40
47
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
of light, extending into x-rays and gamma radiation. All matter
contains aspects of these radiations; as the ‘binding energy’ of the
physical substance that it forms. The black, coherent radiation
becomes the space between the particles that form from it. Matter is
inert, because this energy is attractive as a force (coherent) in its fused
condition. Any change, or pressurization of this energy, causes it to
fission, or break apart. Fission rarifies the radiation, causing it to
become part of a refractive, or particle producing (due to resistance
from change) process toward radioactive decay.
X-rays (and gamma radiation) are energy states that Faraday would
have called ‘absolute’ magnetism, which is simultaneously, perfect
diamagnetism, i.e., there is no resistance, and therefore, there is no
‘refraction’ [Röntgen determined there was no refraction in x-rays, as
mentioned in the quotes in the book] or ‘resistance,’ and therefore, no
electro-negativity. This radiation is a vacuum; non-reflective ‘black’
light, and yet a high frequency radiation. As a state with no electronegativity, ordinary emissive hydrogen at ultraviolet frequency (HO) is
an ideal gas, but not yet a noble gas. Light in this condition is an ‘ideal
blackbody’; an all-absorbing, coherent radiation, absorbing because it
is an highly attractive force. The strong attractive force is cancelled in
an open medium, such as a vacuum or interstellar space, because the
energy expands and cools at zero (Joule-Thomson Effect). Its
coherency, or magnetic attraction, is its inertial characteristic. Since it
is a stored, conserved energy source, it is an ‘ideal radiator’ of particles,
having an infinite supply, as it emits more of the same (H0) through
hysteresis loss. The nobles are among the ‘first products’ generated
from the fusion of this state of hydrogen (HO) [along with electronegative states of hydrogen, HI, HII, HIV, etc., or the Lyman, Balmer
and Paschen series]. 41 For this reason, the nobles, too, are states having
________________________________________________________
“Hyperfine Interaction in Quantum Hall Effect Systems,” I.D. Vagner and
T. Maniv; High Magnetic Field Laboratory/ Max-Planck-Institut für
Festkörperforschung, and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, BP
166X, F-38042 Grenoble CEDEX 9, FRANCE. Department of Chemistry and
the Solid State Institute TECHNION-IIT, Haifa 32000, ISRAEL.
http://hep.ucsd.edu/~branson/130/130b/130b_notes_prod/node101.html
***
See Epilogue for Dr. Mendeleef’s comments on aether as a state of
hydrogen lighter than the already known H1. Dr. Mendeleef is credited as the
first to develop and publish the first (nearly) complete periodic table of
elements.
41
48
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
no-electronegativity. As an ideal gas, HO should be added to the
periodic table of elements *** as the first ideal gas from which all of
the other nobles are derived (explained further throughout the text as a
constituent of all matter.
Remember, Faraday discovered
diamagnetism, and proposed that it could be a fundamental constituent
of matter, as well). At the zero-point phase, HO, is homogenous; in
phase, and remaining in equilibrium; a perfect diamagnetic, and a
perfect vacuum radiation; an ideal blackbody.
The electromagnetic spectrum runs from short gamma rays at left to long
radio waves at right. The narrow visual band, broken into its major colors,
is in the middle. From "Astronomy! A Brief Edition," J. B. Kaler,
Addison- Wesley, 1997.
UTC Theory proposes that HO completes the emissive hydrogen
spectra, falling past violet into ultraviolet light (dark light). The ground
state energy level of the electron in a Hydrogen atom (H1 ) is calculated
to be 13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet ‘photon’ of roughly
92 nm, or the vaccuum ultraviolet range of light. This theorem
proposes that normal hydrogen (HO), as a free neutron is roughly 92
nm; vacuum ultraviolet, however, there is no electron, as has already
been explained.
49
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Thomson had found that cathode rays travel in circular motion, and
Röntgen had found that x-rays travel in a straight line. These were two
of the characteristics of Faraday’s lines of force as they appear in the
iron filings around the bar magnet, which are uniform, stationary lines:
zero, unless moved, then they generate electrical current.
Thomson: “The experiments* discussed in this paper were undertaken
in the hope of gaining some information as to the nature of the Cathode
Rays. The most diverse opinions are held as to these rays; according to
the almost unanimous opinion of German physicists they are due to
some process in the aether to which--inasmuch as in a uniform
magnetic field their course is circular and not rectilinear--no
phenomenon hitherto observed is analogous: another view of these
rays is that, so far from being wholly aetherial, they are in fact wholly
material, and that they mark the paths of particles of matter charged
with negative electricity. It would seem at first sight that it ought not to
be difficult to discriminate between views so different, yet experience
shows that this is not the case, as amongst the physicists who have most
deeply studied the subject can be found supporters of either theory.” 42
To Faraday, the circular field had ‘electrodynamic’ potential, because it
was inductive, bending inward at both ends, and ‘elongating’ outward
on either side of the bar magnet, but the lines of force, in general, were
still purely magnetic. They, only, became electrical when they were
moved. The motion of these lines ‘cut’ them, generating electrical
current. This phenomenal behavior, i.e., that these magnetic lines
would become electrical current when moved, and that the electrical
current generated would develop a magnetic field around it, as well,
showed that the two phenomena were ‘intimately,’ or closely related,
but not one and the same. He had fought the idea that the magnetic
lines of force were composed of particles. By the end of his career,
however, he had begun to believe that the magnetic lines of force, in
general, could be a state of ‘no magnetic action,’ i.e., magnetic forces
only. As has already been shown, he had found early in his career that
the magnetic lines of force could exist independently from electricity,
or matter. On this one finding, his conflict with Andrè Ampére's
_________________________________________________________
42
J. J. Thomson, Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (1897). [facsimile from
Stephen Wright, Classical Scientific Papers, Physics (Mills and Boon, 1964).]
http://maple.lemoyne.edu/faculty/giunta/thomson1897.html
50
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
science stood, for close to fifty years. Faraday had made the
proposition, long before the others, in his Addendum letter to his
publication ‘Thoughts On Ray Vibrations,’ 43 that the ‘radiant matter’
within the medium is a factor that would replace the aether idea.
Faraday had found through his experiments on diamagnetism that gases
still preserved their uniqueness by not acting upon a polarized ray of
light when in a magnetic field. Gases always occupied the zero
position between magnetic [matter, or what later became
electromagnetic radiation] and diamagnetic bodies. Neither the
rarefaction nor the compression of gases had an affect upon their
magnetic action; they always registered 0º. Faraday's findings in this
regard become important when relating them to the Combined Gas
Laws and the Joule-Thomson Effect. According to Faraday, no matter
what is done with the gas, it is still a gas. The NIST graph
demonstrates how the volume of gas diminishes as flux diminishes, but
this is due to shortening of wavelength, which increases density, or
magnetization. Faraday wrote a paper on the subject, 'On The
Diamagnetic Character Of Flames and Gases,' 44 in which he
demonstrates through experimental evidences that by the very nature of
what they are, gases are a pure and stable energy source that play an
important role in our terrestrial atmosphere, extending into space as a
continuation of magnetization (see Zantedeschi Effect in Cosmology).
Hydrogen (H0) is the origin of matter; a first cause; and high-energy
source that begins in the interstellar medium as an already created
energy source, from which all other energy and mass is derived. An
ideal blackbody (different from blackbody radiation) is a hypothetical
energy state that has been proposed to exist, but never found
experimentally. As an uncharged, free neutron, this state of hydrogen
(H0), which is at ultraviolet frequency, is not resistive, until a change
_________________________________________________________
“ADDENDUM TO THOUGHTS ON RAY-VIBRATIONS,” Michael
Faraday; To Richard Phillips, the editor of The Philosophical Magazine, April
15, 1846. See "Experimental Researches in Electricity," Vol. III, p.447-452, M.
Faraday. Philosophical Magazine, S.3, Vol. XXVIII, N188, M. Faraday, May,
1846. Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XXIV, p.136; or Exp. Res. II. 284, 1844.
43
(see complete Addendum Letter In Epilogue).
“On The Diamagnetic Character Of Flames and Gases,” by Michael
Faraday; published as a letter to Mr. Richard Taylor, in the 'Philosophical
Magazine,' December, 1847.
44
51
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
occurs. Its ‘zero’ condition causes it to be a ‘storage point,’ 45 as it
fuses easily into a high density condition that becomes the ‘glue’ or
‘gluon’ in matter, where it not only holds particles together, it
manufactures the particles, as well. As a high density state of stored
hydrogen, it releases or radiates more of the same (H0), which makes it
an ‘ideal radiator,’ and able to increases its volume As a high density
state of stored hydrogen, it releases or radiates more of the same (H0),
which makes it an ‘ideal radiator,’ and able to increases its volume and
frequency in an evacuated medium into x-rays and gamma radiation.
As coherent radiation, this state of ultraviolet is a vacuum; a nonparticle radiation that is completely coherent, and inert because of its
high magnetic permeability (attractive as a force, causing its a standing,
coherent wave, it can give the illusion that it is low-long wavelength
radiation, or microwaves, because of its lack of motion. As the
experiments that follow will show, this state of light is obtainable at
normal temperature levels, as well as ultra-cold temperatures. It has
been misidentified as a low-frequency absorptive energy in vacuum
tubes, 46 and as ‘vacant’ states and ‘holes’ in particle physics, and more
recently, as ‘frozen,’ 47 or ‘halted’ in plasma physics, due to its
cancelled condition.
Lawrence Berkeley NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS, Photo: Fig. 6.2.1.
________________________________________________________________________________________
“Scientific American,” July 2001 issue, “Frozen Light” by Dr. Lene
Vestergaard Hau. [Dr. Hau is the Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics
and Professor of Physics at Harvard University; also, head of the Atom Cooling
Group at the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass].
46
“Excitation Space Anisotropy, Coherence and Coherent conductivity In
Hollow Cathode Discharge,” Opto-Electronics Review 11(1), 51–54 (2003); D.
Zhechev* and N. Parvanova, Institute of Solid State Physics, Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences, 72 Tzarigradsko Chaussee Blvd., BG-1784 Sofia,
Bulgaria.
45, 47
52
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
The Joule-Thomson Effect elaborates upon and supports William
Herschel’s findings. The ‘cooling’ temperature that occurred at the
violet end of the spectrum would mean that pressure within the light
had decreased as the wavelengths shortened, and although expansion
increases volume (and density, which also increases frequency) and
heat to some extent, the gas has room in an evacuated medium to
expand and cool in its equilibrium condition; its resonance state.
Unless pressure is increased in some way, then, cooling and volume
would increase infinitely in an open medium such as interstellar space.
This being so, the whole Kelvin temperature scale is ‘off,’ due to the
gas formula’s proposal that heat increases with increased volume and
less pressure, which would cause an ultraviolet catastrophe to occur in
an The Negative Joule-Thomson Effect is an extension of the JouleThomson Effect, and also conflicts with the ‘Combined Gas Law,’ in
that ‘attractive force’ is pressure; however, in an evacuated medium,
the attractive forces would become latent, because the gas expands and
cools in its resonance condition. Attractive forces become evident only
when the gas is compressed, or pressurized (or through fusion, as UTC
Theory proposes). The attractive force is present as high magnetic
permeability, but as the gas expands and cools, it maintains its
equilibrium state at zero.
As pressure is increased using the Combined Gas Law, or Kelvin scale,
volume decreases, instead of increasing upon expansion, as the JouleThomson Effects (positive and negative) propose. Decreasing volume,
according to the Kelvin scale, however, increases pressure, causing the
temperature to lower, and the gas to contract. The Remy, et. al. 48
experiment, shown below, demonstrates that this simply does not
happen under normal conditions. In fact, present-day ultra-cold
experiments are demonstrating that atoms remain very active and
difficult to contain, unless extreme measures are implemented, e.g.
radio-frequency lasers and magnetic traps.
Rayleigh’s original formula (violet catastrophe) predicted that the
intensity of light would approach infinity as the wavelength approached
zero. Instead of causing a ‘heat problem,’ however, the energy will
expand and cool in its resonance condition. In other words, as the
experiments had shown, no ultraviolet catastrophe’ occurs. Energy
_________________________________________________________
48
Ibid 15
53
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
does not have to be taken to -273º K. to obtain ‘zero-effect,’ or a zeroflux state, 49 as the many experiments shown throughout this theorem
will indicate.
Zero’ state currents and zero state polarity have been found to exist in
vacuum by Tatsuta and Katoh 50 and Steinke and Lindmayer. 51 A zerostate ultraviolet has, also, been found in ultra-cold hydrogen BoseEinstein Condensate experiments (Fried, et. al. 52 and Greytak, et. al. 53),
shown later, as a very sharp ‘point,’ or peak that ‘replenishes’ a
broadened current. The vacuum effects of normal hydrogen are
comparatively the same as those obtained in Bose-Einstein Condensate
experiments.
Kurunczi and Becker 54 obtained discharge plasmas in hollow cathode
configurations with hole sizes of 0.1 – 0.25 mm in pure high pressure
Ne and He (up to atmospheric pressure), and found them to be efficient
sources of Ne2 and He2 excimer radiation. Emission spectroscopy
revealed strong emissions which were identified as the second and first
continua of respectively the Ne2 excimer (75 – 88 nm) and the He2
excimer (60 – 90 nm). Admixtures of small amounts of H2 (up to at
most 0.1%) to Ne resulted in suppression of the excimer radiation and
the emission of intense, monochromatic H Lyman-and Lyman_________________________________________________________
49
Ibid 45
Tatsuta, H. and Katoh, K., “Zero-current and Polarity-Effect Of Ionization
Chambers,” Journal Article 4840824, J. At. Energy Soc., Japan; Vol: 3, Pages:
602-7; Japan Atomic Energy Research Inst., Tokyo.
51
“Differences in Current Zero Behavior between Bipolar and Quadrupolar
AMF Contacts,” Kathrin Steinke and Manfred Lindmayer, XXth International
Symposium On Discharges and Electrical Insulation In Vacuum EIT held in
Ecole d'Ingénieurs de Tours, TOURS, FRANCE - June 30 - July 5, 2002;
Institut für Hochspannungstechnik und Elektrische Energieanlagen Technische
Universität Braunschweig Schleinitzstraße 23A, 38106 Braunschweig,
Germany.
50
52
53
Ibid
Ibid
26
27
.
“VACUUM ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROSCOPY OF MICROHOLLOW
CATHODE DISCHARGE PLASMAS,” Peter F. Kurunczi and Kurt H. Becker;
Physics Department, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030,
USA.
54
54
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
radiation at 121.6 nm and 102.5 nm, respectively. High-pressure He
discharge plasmas with trace amounts of H2, N2, and O2 also results in
the emission of monochromatic atomic H, N, and O lines in the range
from 95 – 125 nm in addition to the He2 excimer radiation. The sources
of these intense monochromatic atomic line emissions are believed to
be near resonant energy transfer processes between the molecular gases
and the rare gas excimers and/or metastables generated in the discharge plasma. In the Remy, et. al. 55 experiment EEE’s were obtained
at the cathode regions, in the Crookes Dark Space of the vacuum tube.
The group proposes that in the expansion process, the abnormal glow
regime occupies the entire tube. In the experiment, Argon gas was
expanded in a pulsed slit discharge nozzle (PDN); a device developed
in their laboratory to generate molecular ions which were conducive to
an astrophysically relevant environment (see photo, below).
________________________________________________________________
55
Ibid 15
55
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
56
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Free cold molecular ions were formed through soft (Penning) ionization
of the neutral precursor molecules seeded in a supersonic free jet, and
probed with cavity ring down spectroscopy. The pulsed discharge
nozzle Confinement of the discharge to a small upstream region of the
expansion leads to efficient rotational cooling of the ions and radicals
generated in the plasma [1, 2, 6]. At typical backing pressure of Ar (760
Torr), the steep pressure gradient within the expansion leads to a pressure
of 2 Torr near the cathode, 1.5mm from the nozzle. The resulting
conditions were characterized by a strong pressure gradient in a short
from 500 to 2 Torr over the 1.5mm inter-electrode distance). (PDN)
combines an intense slit jet configuration with two knife-edge
electrodes that produce a discharge in the stream of the planar expansion. In this configuration, an abnormal glow plasma is generated after
expansion of the Ar gas.
The group ascertains that the plasma generated in the PDN source was
characterized as an intense glow discharge in the abnormal regime, and
that its structure is reduced to a ‘negative glow’ and to ‘dark zones’
near the electrodes. The group proposes that there are two factors that
are, primarily, responsible for the formation of an abnormal glow
discharge in the plasma: the pressure regime and the short (d = 1.5 mm)
inter-electrode distance. There is a strong discharge pressure gradient in
the free jet that ranges from 400–500 Torr at the anode to about 2–3
Torr at the cathode. Although the cathode dark space and negative glow
seem to be unaffected by this environment, the positive column, the
Faraday dark space, the Aston zone, the cathode layer and the anode
glow all disappear. This only leaves the negative glow and dark spaces
between the two electrodes [13]. The glow is blue, red and green in the
case of Ar, Ne and He, respectively, indicating the sole presence of a
negative glow preceded by a Crookes (dark) zone where electrons are
accelerated [14].
57
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
The group depicts the glow structure at three representative pressure
regimes: (i) at a high-pressure regime (400 Torr corresponds to the
pressure 0.06mm downstream), (ii) at an average pressure (10 Torr)
that corresponds to the pressure at mid distance in between the
electrodes (0.75mm downstream) and (iii) at a low pressure regime
(around 2–3 Torr) that corresponds to the pressure at the cathode
(1.5mm downstream). The characteristics of the discharge features that
are associated with each of these pressure regimes are calculated (in the
diagram shown in figure 4, below, and as illustrated in figures 3(b)–(d):
58
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
In summary, the Remy, et. al. 56 group proposes that an abnormal glow
discharge is generated by the PDN source. The very short distance between
the electrodes (1.5 mm) combined to the nature of the expanded carrier gas
lead to a discharge where only two physical zones are expected to be
present, namely, the Crookes dark zone and the negative glow. The group
reports that the Crookes dark space is not completely dark, but it is much
less luminous than the negative glow. In the abnormal glow regime, the
glow extends over the entire surface of the cathode. Most of the potential
difference between the two electrodes is concentrated in the Crookes dark
zone, owing to the space charge of the positive ions. The negative glow is
plasma (i.e. virtually a field-free space) and electrons and positive ions are
____________________________________________________________
56
Ibid 15
59
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
present in approximately the same number per cubic centimetre. The
difference between the two electrodes is concentrated in the Crookes dark
zone, owing to the space charge of the positive ions. The negative glow is
plasma (i.e. virtually a field-free space) and electrons and positive ions are
itself has to extract electrons from the cathode. These primary electrons
generate positive Ar ions along their path in the glow region. Argon ions
will in turn strike the cathode and release secondary electrons. The strong
electric field in the Crookes dark space region causes the major part of the
electrons’ path to be straight across the dark space along the field lines.
The mean free path of the Ar atoms near the cathode (pressure close to a
few Torr) is 5mm whereas the mean free path of the electrons in the same
region is 31 mm. The group proposes that some of the electrons [from the
cathode and Crookes dark space region] enter the negative glow with
high velocities. There, they lose their energies in collisions producing a
mixture of ionized and metastable Ar atoms. This excitation is
responsible for the negative glow. The electrons continue on their way
towards the anode with lower velocities and make the anode side of the
negative glow appear darker.
UTC Theory proposes that the EEE’s obtained in the Crookes dark
space in the Remy, et. al. experiment is the ‘binding’ energy of the
whole reaction; the EEE’s are hydrogen neutrons that have ‘stored’ in
the Crookes region, where the energy is high, yet, conserved at zero; it
is hydrogen in its purest form. The Crookes dark space, which the
group proposes is a ‘dark’ zone where electrons are accelerated,’ is
resonance radiation, i.e., a point where the radiation is coherent and
stationary at zero flux. The Universal Theory Of Contiguity proposes
that the Crookes dark space is an extenuation of the spectra of emissive
hydrogen, where the energy is at resonance, which is ultraviolet
frequency and beyond, into vacuum level radiation as the hydrogen
begins to fuse at zero. The Crookes dark space in the Remy, et. al.
experiment dominated the tube when the pressure was low, which
allowed the argon to expand, and give off (release) energy, taking the
volume of gas to peak resonance. As the pressure was increased in the
tube, the ‘dark space’ radiation experienced destructive interference
(refraction), breaking the resonant ‘fissile’ material apart, and particles
were produced through resistances that occurred throughout the tube.
Since Argon was put into the tube, Argon and its constituent parts were
the whole potential, and the radioactive decay products that resulted
were the constituent parts of Argon, or lighter ideal gases; Ne and He.
60
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
The Remy, et. al. 57 group has proposed that there is ‘cathode voltage
potential difference across the dark space is large because the discharge
fall,’ which is associate with the two major zones (the Crookes dark
space and the negative glow) in the plasma. UTC Theory proposes that
the ‘cathode voltage fall,’ reported by the group is not a depletion of
frequency, or energy, but rather, the expansion process has increased
the frequency and energy level throughout the tube, through emission.
As the radiation reaches the zero-point phase, which is resonance, the
flux, too, is at zero, which gives the illusion of ‘fall.’ The group
proposal that the ‘Crookes dark space is not completely dark, but it is
much less luminous than the negative glow,’ is due to zero-flux; the
light although in a high-energy phase is non-refractive black light. In
the abnormal glow regime, the glow extends over the entire surface of
the cathode, because the ‘darker’ light is keeping the ‘abnormal glow,’
which is lower energy, in a stimulated condition. The group is
proposing that most of the potential difference between the two
electrodes is concentrated in the Crookes dark zone, [which is] ‘owing
to the ‘space charge of the positive ions.’ ‘The negative glow is plasma
(i.e. virtually a field-free space) and electrons and positive ions are
present in approximately the same number per cubic centimetre. [This
epitomizes the definition of an ‘ideal gas’].’ The group proposes that
after producing the excitation that is generating the ‘negative flow
plasma, the electrons continue on their way towards the anode with
lower velocities, making the anode side of the negative glow appear
darker, and, in particular, not a source of ionization.’ UTC theory
proposes that the anode is a decay channel, a plasma and ideal gas state
that is ground-state hydrogen. The group has proposed that the anode
sheath is essentially collisionless. UTC Theory proposes that this
‘collisionless sheath’ is a stationary ‘wave,’ also, non-refractive black
light, but at microwave frequency.
_________________________________________________________
57
Ibid 15
61
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
The colors blue, red and green that appeared in the case of Ar, Ne and
He, respectively, within the plasma obtained in the Remy, et. al. 58
experiment, are colors that fall within the spectra of emissive hydrogen
(HO). These spectral colors were obtained as the tube underwent
pressurization. The spectral colors, as the group reports, fall within the
microwave range of light. As the Argon was expanded; however, the
EEE’s obtained at the cathode and Crookes dark space region (which
were not measured in the experiment), UTC Theory proposes, have to
fall within the ultraviolet range and above.
Mizuno, et. al. 59 observed anomalous hydrogen and oxygen gas
generation during plasma electrolysis [of the Crookes dark space]. The
group proposes that the generation of hydrogen exceeds Faraday’s law,
ascertaining that the ‘non-Faradic’ generation of hydrogen gas is
sometimes 80 times higher than the gas obtained from normal
electrolysis, as it is continuously observed to increase when the
conditions such as temperature, current density, input voltage and
________________________________________________________________________________________
58
Ibid
15
59 “
Generation of Heat and Products During Plasma Electrolysis,” Presented at
Tenth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2003. Cambridge, MA:
LENR-CANR.org. Another version published by World Scientific, Inc (2003)
in the official Proceedings of the conference; Tadahiko Mizuno, T., T. Ohmori,
and T. Akimoto, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku Kita-13 Nishi-8, Sapporo 0608628, Japan
62
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
electrode surface are suitable. The ratio of the hydrogen gases released
from the cathode is exactly [the] same as the value indicated by the
current[s], shown in the chart, below:
In 1961, Tatsuta and Katoh 60 obtained a zero-current and zero polarity
effect in ionization chambers. The experimenters propose that the zerocurrent is produced from the contact potential difference between two
electrodes. For the latter [zero polarity], they found that the zerocurrent of the output electrical connector makes it most dominant under
ordinary conditions; however, at lower pressures (<1 mmHg), the
Taylor-Greening Effect becomes effective.
Oro, et. al.61 found that frequency increases with increasing plasma
_______________________________________________________________________________________
60
Ibid 50
“A Debris-Free. Plasma Radiation. Source for Extreme. Ultraviolet.
Lithography,” D. M. Oró, R. D. Fulton, D. V. Morgan (P-22), J. C. Goldstein,
M. E. Jones (XPA), B. C. Carlsten, J.M. Kinross-Wright, D. C. Nguyen, S. J.
Russell (LANSCE-9), Chapter Two. Physics Division 46 Progress Report
1995–1996
61
63
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
electron density. When the inverse of the plasma frequency equals the
bunch length, or, equivalently, when a critical electron-density is
reached, the plasma responds collectively to the next bunch and slows
the bunch, transferring energy to the background plasma.
At the XXth International Symposium On Discharges and Electrical
Insulation In Vacuum EIT held in Ecole d'Ingénieurs de Tours, TOURS,
FRANCE - June 30 - July 5, 2002, Steinke and Lindmayer 62 have
reported that the ‘after current zero’ can be explained with a simplified
post-arc model [8].* The group ascertains that before and at current
zero the plasma between the electrodes is neutral. Activated through the
special conditions in the cathode-spots electrons and ions both move
toward the anode. At current zero the polarity of the electrodes changes.
It is assumed that the ions due to their inertia keep their original speed
(104 m/s [9], 8 X 103 m/s [10]) and direction for the first moment.
While the post-arc current rises with opposite polarity, electrons
become slower and finally their speed becomes zero [11]. At this
moment ti (fig. 1) the whole post-arc current is carried by the ions. It is i
= e·A·Z·ni·vi (1) with i = current, e = elementary charge, A = discharge
area, Z = mean ion charge state (average 1.8), ni = ion density, vi = ion
velocity. The post-arc current peak is in close neighborhood to this
point. Therefore this current is a direct measure for the product ni·vi.
Until ti the electron and ion densities are equal, and the voltage across
the gap is zero (fig. 1), as shown below:
_______________________________________________________________________________________
62
Ibid 51
*[ ] bracketed numbers are from Steinke-Lindmayer publication to cite their
references supporting their comments.
64
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
From this time on the electrons reverse and move to the new anode. In
front of the new cathode a positive space charge sheath of thickness s
grows and takes up the whole transient recovery voltage (TRV). The
post-arc current density j of the post-arc period beginning with ti can be
described by the following equation: j = ni·Z·e·(vi+ds/dt) (2) j current density, ni – ion density at the edge between sheath and
neutral plasma, e – elementary charge, vi – ion velocity, s – sheath
thickness. The first term is due to the directed ion motion with vi from
the old cathode towards the new cathode. With a ion velocity of
approximately 104 m/s this term disappears after about 1 s for a 1 cm
gap. The second term ds/dt characterizes the expansion of the positive
space charge sheath. It can be shown that under certain simplifications
the integral over the post-arc current (= post-arc charge) is a direct
measure for the total residual charge present in the contact gap at the
moment of current zero [10, 13]. Therefore both the post-arc current
peak and the post arc charge are a direct indication of the residual
charge in the gap at current zero.
(UTC theory proposes that at the point where the experimenter’s zerostate ‘electrons’ occur, the current has entered a phase of coherent
radiation, where the ‘electrons,’ and they are only referred to as
electrons, because the experimenters refer to this state as such, however,
this state of light is non-refractive, or resistive. UTC theory proposes
that this is a peak resonance condition, and the ‘electrons’ are a binding
energy, and since they are in a confined medium, they recoil and
become superconducting-generating the post-arc current).
The group reports that at current zero the residual flux density of the
quadrupolar contacts is with 530 mT by a factor of 2.2 higher than that
of the bipolar system. (240 mT). The damping time constant is also
much higher for the quadrupolar contact system (3,5 ms) than for the
bipolar contact system (1,7 ms) [7]. The residual AMF after current
zero is caused by eddy currents,** mainly in the contact plates. The
main interest is to design a contact geometry where the generated axial
magnetic field spreads the thermal stress from the vacuum arc over a
contact plate area as evenly as possible [12]. With both the quadrupolar
and the bipolar AMF contact system the effective area (areas of AMF
65
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998

4 mT/kA [12]) is about 75% of the electrode area [7].
Fig. 6, below, depicts post-arc current traces at 50 and 60 k ARMS
from several individual measurements to demonstrate the scatter.
Though both polarities were used, the results are plotted together in the
same direction. A polarity influence could not be found.
A large scattering range is an indication that the limit of breaking
capability is being reached [2]. Both for 50 and 60 kA the scatter in
post-arc currents of the quadrupolar contact system is larger than for
the bipolar contact system. Also the measured currents of the
quadrupolar contact system reach a higher post-arc current peak, their
duration is longer, and consequently their post-arc charge is higher.
These facts are underlined by fig. 7, below, where the ultraviolet
characteristic quantities “post-arc current peak” and “post-arc charge”
_________________________________________________________
**eddy currents enter the picture, again, in the interstellar medium, which UTC
theory proposes is a product derived from vacuum radiation.
66
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
are summarized for all investigated arc currents between 30 and 60 kA.
The quadrupolar system clearly exhibits higher current and charge
values as well as larger scatter, the latter especially under 50 and 60 kA
conditions. There is also a very clear correlation between failures and
the post arc peak and charge, respectively. Though the failure events
always occur definitely after the visible post-arc currents have ceased,
the cases of failures are always associated with the highest and longest
post-arc currents prior to them.
The behavioral effects of zero current and zero polarity are comparable
to those obtained in Bose-Einstein Condensate experiments. More
particularly, the few experiments that have been performed with
hydrogen (Fried, et. al.63 and Greytak, et. al. 64 ), where zero-state
ultraviolet has been obtained. The groups have ascertained that their
zero-state ultraviolet is a standing wave, which is a normal state of
ultraviolet, and a normal state of hydrogen. They have categorized this
________________________________________________________________________________________
63
64
Ibid
Ibid
26
27
67
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
state of ultraviolet to be ‘Doppler-sensitive.’ The ‘Doppler-sensitive’
portion replenishes a conjunctive, broadened ‘Doppler-free’ condensate
in the microwave range of light, which the group reports poses as an
[energy] ‘gap’ that exists between the two components.
Greytak, et. al. (2000) 65 proposed that, “in our system 10 9 atoms per
second are being condensed out of the normal component.” The group
suggests that “efficient coupling of these atoms into a coherent beam
(instead of losing them from the trap) could have broad technological
implications.” Fried, et. al. 66 reported that when the ‘Doppler-free’
condensate (broadened microwave component) decays rapidly by
dipolar relaxation, it is simultaneously replenished by the normal gas
carried in the 'Doppler-sensitive' component [zero-state ultraviolet].
The group proposes that the zero-state component is a standing wave of
normal ultraviolet, and that the ‘narrowed spectrum’ of the zero-state
ultraviolet is an indication of a reduction in density, and therefore, there
is less intensity, or an indication that there is a reduction in condensate
population. The lifetime is observed to be about 5s. The group reports
that the ‘doper-sensitive,’ or zero-state ultraviolet, is a factor derived
from that absorption of counter-propagating photons, and the ‘Dopplerbroadened’ portion from co-propagating photons.
_________________________________________________________
65
Ibid 26
66
Ibid 27
68
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
The ‘zero’ state currents obtained in the vacuum experiments are
comparatively the same as in the BEC experiments. UTC theory
proposes that the zero-state ultraviolet obtained is the ‘coherent beam’
that the BEC group proposes could be obtained through ‘efficient
coupling’ methods, albeit, some of it was lost. UTC theory proposes
that the hydrogen shown in this experiment at ultraviolet frequency is
the zero-point state of hydrogen; it is ordinary emissive hydrogen (HO),
an uncharged ion, or free neutron. Hydrogen at its zero-point phase is
in its resonance state, which is its normal, steady-state; a state of no
resistivity, which makes it a perfect diamagnetic, a super-conducting
energy phase. UTC theory proposes that in the Greytak, et. al. and the
Fried, et. al. experiments, the zero-point state of hydrogen obtained,
was the result of co-propagating photons, rather than from counterpropagating photons, which the group has proposed. The group has
surmised that their ‘counter-propagating photons’ are in unison. The
zero-state hydrogen (HO) is what a ‘photon’ is proposed to be: zero. If
there is any further ‘crowding’ of the hydrogen at this level, which is
‘pinch’ effect, fusion begins to occur, because there is no resistance,
which causes the hydrogen to store and conserve more of the same
energy (HO) easily, reaching high vacuum uv levels as a result. The
ultraviolet frequency has been maintained in both of these experiments,
because vacuum ultraviolet laser (243 nm) was used. In both of the
hydrogen BEC experiments, the zero state ultraviolet (H O) obtained
‘replenished’ the broadened portion. This conserved energy source has
diminished only in volume in the experiments, because it has
‘converted,’ or diminished toward the production of the ‘broadened’
portion, yet maintains its frequency level.
The London penetration depth, which refers to the related to the density
of superconducting ‘electrons’ in the material [at the surface, or where
the zero state uv exists in the hydrogen BEC experiments; along the
surface where ‘pinch effect,’ or fusion is occurring]. The zero state uv
in the BEC experiments is the ‘binding energy,’ which is an
independent characteristic, or ‘coherence length’ that is related to the
Fermi velocity for the broadened material and the energy gap
associated with the condensation of the superconducting ‘zero’ state uv.
As the normal hydrogen in the ‘Doppler-sensitive,’ zero state portion
converts to, or ‘replenishes,’ the broadened component, the ‘coherent
beam’ of ultraviolet has narrowed. The frequency; however, has
remained in tact as ultraviolet.
69
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Hijmans, et. al. 67 have found that “the normal gas [zero-state uv] acts
as a large reservoir that continually replenishes the condensate [the
broadened Doppler-free component] as atoms are lost through dipolar
relaxation. This replenishment dramatically increases the apparent
lifetime of the condensate.”
Brandt, et. al. 68 propose that there is a “finite temperature gluon selfenergy in a class of temporal gauges.” The group has taken the
approach which relates thermal Green functions to forward scattering
amplitudes of on-shell thermal particles in the calculation of the ‘gluon
self-energy,’ which they propose is a class of temporal gauges. The
exact self-energy of the gluon is transverse at finite temperature to all
orders. (Except for the Feynman gauge, where the transversality has
been verified only to one loop order, this property is not valid in the
class of covariant gauges). The group proposes that logarithmic
contributions have the same structure as the “ultraviolet pole,” terms
which occur at zero temperature. The forward scattering amplitude
associated with the thermal gluon self-energy has been obtained, to
one-loop order, using the approximation which consists in neglecting
the contributions from the prescription poles. The relation between the
dimensionally regularized zero temperature gluon self-energy
[ultraviolet] and the in T contribution, given in Eq. (25), is relevant to
explain the cancellation of the in (−k2 ) terms between the zero
temperature and the temperature dependent parts of the gluon selfenergy.
Akis, et. al. 69 have given ‘numerical simulations of open quantum
dots’ that reproduce ‘zero field resistance peaks’ that have been
observed experimentally. The group has ascertained, mathematically,
________________________________________________________
67
T. W. Hijmans, Y. Kagan, G. V. Shlyapnikov, and J. T. M. Walraven, Phys.
Rev. B 48, 12886 (1993)].
68
“Finite temperature gluon self-energy in a class of temporal gauges,” Phys.
Rev. D61, 125014 (July 9, 2004); F. T. Brandt, J. Frenkel and F. R. Machado;
Instituto de F´ısica, Universidade de S˜ao Paulo, S˜ao Paulo, SP 05315-970,
BRAZIL
69
“Zero field magnetoresistance peaks in Open Quantum Dots: Weak
Localization Or A Fundamental Property?”; 1999 J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 11
4657-4664, R Akis, D. Vasileska, D. K. Ferry and J. P. Bird, Center For Solid
State Electronics Research, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5706,
USA.
70
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
that this phenomena, which has been attributed to weak localization in
the past, can have a different origin, involving conductance resonances
that reflect the underlying spectrum of light.
UTC theory proposes that vacuum ultraviolet is a state that exists in the
open environment of interstellar space, where hydrogen has fused at
resonance into coherent radiation that is behaving as a ‘solid,’
explained below. This phase of light, which is high as a energy source
extends into x-rays and gamma radiation (and possibly Cherenkov and
higher). Expansion in the open medium of interstellar space increases
magnetic permeability to maximum, which results in a radiation that is
a coherent, cancelled wave; the vacuum level ultraviolet. When light
exists in this coherent state it is a perfect diamagnetic (we already know
that hydrogen is diamagnetic, and collectively, as it exists in space, it is
a perfect diamagnetic state; zero, which is a state of no-resistance. This
makes it a super-conducting energy source. In this condition, light is
non-refractive black light; a state that is also perfect magnetism. UTC
theory proposes that this state of light is an ideal blackbody; allabsorbing, because it is attractive as a force attractive (the reason that
the energy is coherent) due to its high magnetic permeability, which
makes it inert, and perfectly black at all wavelengths. Expansion in the
interstellar medium causes it to maintain its zero state, or cancelled
condition, to infinitesimal continuity. In an ‘open’ environment density,
or volume increase, can reach extremely high levels without effect,
because the expansion has caused the energy to maintain its cancelled
condition, and energy [and mass] are conserved, or stored at zero.
Although the internal pressure is positive and the Joule coefficient
negative, since the gas has cooled, it heats only on compression in a
constant energy due to the attractive forces at work (Negative JouleThomson Effect).
In the open interstellar medium, ordinary emissive hydrogen (H0) has
increased in nuclear capacity due to its infinite expansion, which has
increased its volume. In general, gamma rays are produced by nuclear
transitions from an unstable high-energy state to a low-energy state.
The Universal Theory Of Contiguity (UTC theory) proposes that the
gamma ray bursts in the interstellar medium are a result of this
transitional occurrence, where the vacuum ultraviolet experiences
hysteresis loss (magnetic), and the excess energy emitted from the
action forms a decay channel; a plasma of high density inert gases, or
71
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
noble gases. The interstellar radiation is behaving as a solid, and the
Mossbauer Effect is occurring, where the energy of the emitted gamma
rays corresponds to the energy of the nuclear transition (possibly up to
Cherenov levels) minus an amount of energy that is lost through recoil
(nobles/microwaves) toward the production of the emitting atoms. If
the lost "recoil energy" is small compared with the energy linewidth of
the nuclear transition, then the gamma ray energy still corresponds to
the energy of the nuclear transition and the gamma ray can be absorbed
by another atom of the same type as the first (the surrounding
ultraviolet and higher to x-rays and beyond). Since the interstellar
medium is a continuum radiation, this type of recoil-free absorption is
occurring on a grand scale. Such emission and subsequent absorption
is called resonance.
Mao, et. al. 70 report that the gamma ray burst (GRB) spectrum in
interstellar space is non-thermal, yet, in most cases there is a strong
power law high-energy tail extending to a few GeV, and a particular
high-energy tail up to 18 GeV has been reported in GRB940217.”)
The radiation emitted by such an ideal blackbody when heated is
blackbody radiation. A perfect blackbody has an emissivity of unity.
The higher radiation (ideal blackbody) emits its excess energy as more
hydrogen through hysteresis loss, and since it is more of the same, the
volume of hydrogen gas is continuously replenished. As the emitted
hydrogen experiences pressure from all sides (due to the high
magnetization of the higher radiation), the newly emitted radiation, at
first, becomes refractive, or resistive to the action, ** and the plasma of
_________________________________________________________
“Vacuum discharge as a possible source of gamma-ray bursts,” G. Mao, S.
Chiba, Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute Tokai, Naka, Ibaraki 319-1195,
Japan, W. Greiner Institut f¨ur Theoretische Physik der J. W. GoetheUniversit¨at Postfach 11 19 32, D-60054 Frankfurt am Main, Germany K.
Oyamatsu Faculty of Studies on Contemporary Society Aichi Shukutoku
University 9 Katahira, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1197, Japan (April 12, 2004).
**It appears that J. J. Thomson obtained his q/m ratio results for this reason,
i.e., his minute ‘electrical charges’ were small fluxes, or the scintillations that
are produced from pressures that occur with this state of hydrogen. This would
mean that his son, George Pagett Thomson, was also correct in his ‘wave’
hypothesis, with a small exception, the wave is stationary, i.e., it is not waving.
It is so magnetic that it is a strong, coherent force and radiation that is, virtually,
non-motional. Emery is ‘stored,’ or conserved in this condition.
70
72
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
gas emitted breaks apart, or fissions, primarily, into noble gases, and
the nobles fission into He2 and oxygen, primarily, along with HI, HII,
etc.71 The nobles have the potential to be either ‘raised and matched’ to
the higher vacuum level uv (or higher), or undergo a continued
radioactive decay cycle as pressure builds toward the production of
macroscopic mass.
Mills, et. al. 72 report that extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy was
recorded on microwave discharges of helium with 2% hydrogen. The
group recorded EUV spectra of helium-hydrogen mixtures maintained
in a novel series of peaks and are open to suggestions.** These lines
matched transitions to fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen (n
= 1/p = 1/integer replaces the well known parameter n = integer in the
Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states). Evidence of excimer
emission was also observed. An extremely high hydrogen-atom
temperature of 180 – 210 eV was observed with the presence of helium
ion catalyst only with the presence of helium ion catalyst only with
hydrogen present. Similarly, the average electron temperature for
_________________________________________________________
“Production Of Slow Electrons And Positive Ions In He, Ne, Ar, H2, N2, O2
and CO By Energetic Helium Ions,” (1963 Jan. 01) OSTI 4659825, TID-19137;
Martin, D. W.; Langley; R. A.; Hooper, J. W.; Harmer, D. S.; McDaniel, E. W.;
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta.
72
“Spectroscopic study of unique line broadening and inversion in low
pressure microwave generated water plasmas,” International Journal Of
Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 27, pg. 967 (2002); R. L. Mills, P. C. Ray, R. M. Mayo,
M. Nansteel, B. Dhandapani, BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road,
Cranbury, NJ 0851; Jonathan Phillips, University of New Mexico, Dept. of
Chemical and Nuclear Engineering, 203 Farris Engineering, Albuquerque, NM
87131(2002).
** UTC Theory proposes that the low pressure in the Evenson cavity allowed
room for expansion, and expansion increased magnetization, or coherence of
the radiations, which is also an increase in frequency. The hydrogen, in its
normal state is ultraviolet, and the more energetic of the two gases. The helium
was pulse-amplified to the same resonance level as the hydrogen, or to
ultraviolet frequency, where the two radiations [which are elements] were in
phase. At this point, the helium converts to hydrogen, and fusion began to
occur, taking the radiation into vacuum level uv frequency as the strong,
attractive forces take over, where all resistance is nil, and therefore, all
oscillations are nil. This vacuum state is a perfect diamagnetic condition; a
super-conducting state, having the potential to become particle producing again,
if pressure is increased.
71
73
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
helium-hydrogen plasma was high, 28,000 K, compared to 6800 K for
helium alone. The intensity of the emission of the He II peak at 30.4
nm relative to that of the He I peak at 58.4 nm increased with the
addition of 5% hydrogen. The effect was dependent on the microwave
field which increased the amount of He+ in both cases. Similarly,
hydrogen plasmas became more energetic when helium was added as
indicated by the intensification of the Lyman and Balmer emission. The
results showed the effect of the presence of He+ with atomic hydrogen
and demonstrated the role of He+ as a catalyst. Using water bath
calorimetry, excess power was observed from the helium-hydrogen
plasma compared to control krypton plasma. For a 8.1 W input, the
thermal output power of the helium-hydrogen plasma was measured to
be 30.0 W corresponding to 21.9 W of excess power in 3 cm3. The
excess power density and energy balances were high, 7.3 W / cm3 and 2.9 X 104 kJ / mole H2 , respectively. The results indicate that a new
power source based on the catalysis of atomic hydrogen is not only
possible, but is it competitive with gas turbine combustion. Direct
plasma to electric power conversion is possible. At the load matching
condition of 250 W, the direct plasmadynamic conversion (PDC) of
open circuit voltages of 21.8 V and 1.87 W of electrical power were
demonstrated with a 0.125 in diameter by 3/4 in long plasmadynamic
electrode and a 140 G applied field corresponding to an extracted
power density of 3.6 W/cm3 and an efficiency of 42% [62].
Mills, et. al. 73 have reported that they have observed intense extreme
ultraviolet EUV) emission from incandescently heated atomic hydrogen
and atomized strontium. These intense EUV emissions were observed
at low temperatures (e.g. » 103 K ) from atomic hydrogen and certain
atomized elements or certain gaseous ions which ionize at integer
multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV [1-5]. A
plasma formed at a cell voltage of about 250 volts in the cell with
hydrogen alone and in the cell with hydrogen and sodium; whereas, a
plasma formed in the strontium cell at the extremely low voltage of
about 2 volts.
_________________________________________________________
73 “
Observation of Extreme Ultraviolet Hydrogen Emission from
Incandescently Heated Hydrogen Gas with Strontium that Produced an
Optically Measured Power Balance that was 4000 Times the Control,” Randell
L. Mills, Mark Nansteel, Ying Lu; BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton
Road, Cranbury, NJ 08512
74
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
UTC theory proposes that the state obtained by Mills, et. al., as shown
in the graph above, is just one of the many examples that serve to show
that when hydrogen is in its resonance state, it ‘zeroes’ out into a
standing; coherent wave of same. UTC theory proposes that hydrogen
in this condition is in its purest form; it has fused, and maintains
equilibrium at vacuum level, where energy is conserved, or stored.
Chin, et. al., 74 obtained vacuum uv in BEC, and proposed that the
condensate obtained is near an ideal gas state (shown in the photo,
below). UTC theory proposes that, like the Greytak, et. al. 76 and Fried,
et. al. 75 hydrogen BEC experiments, shown later, this ‘zero’ condition
is where the energy has transformed into a pure hydrogen condition
( HO), and fused, because it is neutral, and virtually, motionless. The
greater the fusion, the higher the frequency of the radiation becomes. If
any motion or pressure is imposed upon this state of matter (dark, nonrefractive black light), particles are produced, due to the strain imposed.
_________________________________________________________
“Amplification of Local Instabilities in a Bose-Einstein Condensate with
Attractive Interactions,” Phys. Rev. Letters, Vol. 90, No. l6, ( 2003 24 April) J.
K. Chin, J.M. Vogels,* and W. Ketterle, Department of Physics, MIT-Harvard
Center for Ultracold Atoms, and Research Laboratory of Electronics,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139.
74
75
76
Ibid 27
Ibid 26
75
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
Increased pressure begins a radioactive decay cycle toward the
production of elements.
Mills, et. al. 77 obtained plasma that they call a ‘resonant transfer (rt)
plasma,’ which formed with a low field (1 V cm-1), at low temperatures
(e.g. ≈ 103 K), from atomic hydrogen generated at a tungsten filament
and strontium which was vaporized by heating the metal. Strong
vacuum ultraviolet emission was observed that increased with the
addition of argon, but not when sodium, magnesium or barium replaced
strontium or with hydrogen, argon or strontium alone. Characteristic
strontium and argon emission was observed which supported a
resonant-energy-transfer mechanism. Significant Balmerα line
broadening corresponding to an average hydrogen atom temperature of
14, 24, and 23-45 eV was observed for strontium and argon-strontium
_________________________________________________________
“Spectroscopic Identification of Transitions of Fractional Rydberg States of
Atomic Hydrogen,” Journal of Molecular Structure 643, 43, (2002); R. L.
Mills, P. Ray, B. Dhandapani, M. Nansteel, X. Chen, J. He.
77
76
Excerpts From “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity; A Unified
Field Theory,” by Judith S. Stone, © 1998
rt plasmas and discharges of strontium-hydrogen, helium-hydrogen,
argon-hydrogen, strontium-helium-hydrogen and strontium-argonhydrogen, respectively, compared to ≈ 3 eV for pure hydrogen,
krypton-hydrogen, xenon-hydrogen and magnesium-hydrogen. To
achieve that same optically measured light output power, hydrogensodium, hydrogen-magnesium and hydrogen-barium mixtures required
4000, 7000 and 6500 times the power of the hydrogen-strontium
mixture, respectively, and the addition of argon increased these ratios
by a factor of about two. A glow discharge plasma formed for
hydrogen-strontium mixtures at an extremely low voltage of about 2 V
compared to 250 V for hydrogen alone and sodium-hydrogen mixtures,
and
140-150 V
for
hydrogen-magnesium
and
hydrogenbarium mixtures.
As it exists in the interstellar medium, H0 can remain in phase at
resonance, as a homogenous ‘fissile’ material to infinitesimal
continuity. It is all-absorbing, because any radiation that nears its
magnitude is transformed by it, i.e., energy is raised and matched to its
magnitude. Its residual radiation, as explained in the overall theorem,
can take one of two courses; it can form a radioactive decay channel
toward mass production, as it fissions, or breaks apart toward particle
production and radioactive decay, or it can be raised to the higher
radiation level, where it maintains its high frequency level.
Chen, et. al. 78, obtained a “zero-dimensional steady-state model of
low-pressure (2-60 Torr) microwave-generated hydrogen plasma.” The
group estimated that for low-pressure
plasmas their
pressure, including the fact that gas temperature rises steeply at
pressures in excess of 15 Torr. This results from the fact that at low
pressures a very large fraction of the input power is transmitted by the
‘electrons’** to the molecular vibration modes, such that
.
_________________________________________________________
“Modelling The Discharge Region Of A Microwave Generated Hydrogen
Plasma,” (1999) J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 32 688-698; Chen, Chun-Ku; Wei, TaChin; Collins, Lance R., and Phillips, Jonathan; Dept. of Chemical Engineering,
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Dept. of
Chemical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung Li, Taiwan,
Republic of China.
http://hep.ucsd.edu/~branson/130/130b/130b_notes_prod/node101.html
78
77
See a Complete Cosmology, which is based on these analogies, in
the book, “The Universal Theory Of Contiguity,” beginning in
PART III. http://www.angelfire.com/sc3/cosmology
or
http://www.angelfire.com/sc3/unified_field
78
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COMMITTEE ON CONDENSED-MATTER AND MATERIALS
PHYSICS: VENKATESH NARAYANMURTI, Harvard University,
Chair: JAMES B. ROBERTO, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Vice
Chair: GABRIEL AEPPLI, NEC Research Institute; J. MURRAY
GIBSON, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; STEVEN
GIRVIN, Indiana University; MARK KETCHEN, IBM T.J. Watson
Research Center; EDWARD J. KRAMER, University of California,
Santa Barbara; JAMES S. LANGER, University of California, Santa
Barbara; CHERRY ANN MURRAY, Lucent Technologies, Bell
Laboratories; V. ADRIAN PARSEGIAN, National Institutes of Health;
PAUL S. PEERCY, SEMI/SEMATECH; JULIA M. PHILLIPS, Sandia
National Laboratories; ROBERT C. RICHARDSON, Cornell
University; FRANS SPAEPEN, Harvard University; KATEPALLI R.
SREENIVASAN, Yale University; DONALD C. SHAPERO, Director;
DANIEL F. MORGAN, Program Officer (until June 1, 1998); KEVIN
D. AYLESWORTH, Program Officer (as of September 7, 1998).
85
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WEB REFERENCES:
http://mally.stanford.edu/leibniz.html
http://www-groups.dcs.stand.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/History_overview.html
http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/ae22.htm **
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/hydsch.html
http://www.compusmart.ab.ca/plambeck/che/p101/p01212
http://members.aol.com/WSRNet/D1/hist.htm
http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle group/Research_topics/Popular papers.htm
http://www.exploratorium.edu/exhibit_services/exhibits/g/glow
discharge.html
http://www.nuc.umr.edu/~ans/cerenkov.html
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[http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/demos/main_pages/6.5.html ]; Purdue
University; The Bodner Research Group; Div. of Chemistry Education,
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1393
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/maglev.html#c1
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/meis.html#c2
**Joliot-Curie photograph used by Einstein to prove E = mc2 .
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