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AGBU – HIGH SCHOOL (PASADENA)
AP BIOLOGY OBJECTIVES AND KEY TERMS
(Study Guide)
UNIT I
Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life
Key Terms:
Matter
electron
Mass
atomic number
Element
mass number
Trace element
isotope
Compound
radioactive
Atom
half life
Proton
energy
Neutron
potential energy
electron shell
orbital
valence electrons
chemical bond
molecule
electronegativity
covalent bond
polar covalent bond
ionic bond
cation
anion
ion
hydrogen bond
Objectives:
1. Define element and compound.
2. State four elements essential to life that make up 96% of living matter.
3. Describe the structure of an atom.
4. Define and distinguish among atomic number, mass number, atomic weight and valence.
5. Given the atomic number and mass number of an atom, determine the number of neutrons.
6. Explain why radioisotopes are important to biologists.
7. Explain how electron configuration influences the chemical behavior of an atom.
8. Explain the octet rule and predict how many bonds an atom might form.
9. Explain why the noble gases are so unreactive.
10. Define electronegativity and explain how it influences the formation of chemical bonds.
11. Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonds.
12. Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it differs from a covalent or
ionic bond.
13. Explain why weak bonds are important to living organisms.
14. Describe how the relative concentrations of reactants and products affect a chemical
reaction
15. Describe the chemical conditions on early Earth and explain how they were different from
today.
Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment
Key Terms:
Cohesion
temperature
solvent
Surface tension
calorie
solute
Adhesion
kilocalorie
aqueous solution
Hydrophilic
specific heat
mole
Hydrophobic
heat of vaporization molecular weight
Kinetic energy
evaporative cooling hydronium ion
Heat
solution
hydroxide ion
Objectives:
dissociation
acid
base
pH scale
buffer
acid precipitation
1. Describe how water contributes to the fitness of the environment to support life.
2. Describe the structure and geometry of a water molecule, and explain what properties
emerge as a result of this structure.
3. Explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form hydrogen
bonds.
4. List five characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from hydrogen
bonding.
5. Describe the biological significance of the cohesiveness of water.
6. Distinguish between heat and temperature.
7. Explain how water’s high specific heat, high heat of vaporization and expansion upon
freezing affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
8. Explain how the polarity of the water molecule makes it a versatile solvent.
9. Define molarity and list some advantages of measuring substances in moles.
10. Write the equation for the dissociation of water, and explain what is actually transferred
from one molecule to another.
11. Explain how acids and bases directly or indirectly affect the hydrogen ion concentration of
a solution.
12. Explain how acids and bases directly or indirectly affect the hydrogen ion concentration of
a solution.
13. Using the bicarbonate buffer system as an example, explain how buffers work.
14. Describe the causes of acid precipitation, and explain how it adversely affects the fitness of
the environment.
Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life
Key Terms:
Organic chemistry
structural isomer
alcohol
Organic molecules
geometric isomer
carbonyl
Vitalism
enantiomer
aldehyde
Mechanism
asymmetric carbon
ketone
Hydrocarbons
functional group
carboxyl
Isomer
hydroxyl
carboxylic acid
amino group
amine
sulfhydryl
thiol
phosphater
Objectives:
1. Summarize the philosophies of vitalism and mechanism, and explain how they influenced
the development of organic chemistry, as well as mainstream biological thought.
2. Explain how carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and number bonds
carbon will form.
3. Describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation contributes to the
diversity and complexity of organic molecules.
4. Distinguish among the three types of isomers: structural, geometric and enantiomers.
5. Recognize the major functional groups, and describe the chemical properties of organic
molecules in which they occur.
Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Macromolecules
Key Terms:
Polymer
glycogen
protein
denaturation
Monomer
Macromolecule
Peptide bond
Hydrolysis
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide
Disaccharide
Polysaccharide
Glycosidic linkage
cellulose
chitin
condensation reaction
protein conformation
lipid
fat
phopholipid
tertiary structure
ester linkage
amino acid
polypeptide
pyrimidine
phophodiester bond
native conformation
primary structure
secondary structure
disulfide bridge
quaternary structure
nucleic acid
nucleotide
purine
DNA
RNA
pentose
starch
steroid
Objectives:
1. List the levels of biological hierarchy from subatomic particles to macromolecules.
2. Explain how organic polymers contribute to biological diversity.
3. Describe how covalent linkages are formed and broken in organic polymers.
4. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates, and explain how they are
classified.
5. List four characteristics of a sugar.
6. Identify a glycosidic linkage and describe how it is formed.
7. Describe the important biological functions of polysaccharides.
8. Distinguish between the glycosidic linkages found in starch and cellulose, and explain why
the difference is biologically important.
9. Explain what distinguishes lipids from other major classes of macromolecules.
10. Describe the unique properties, building block molecules and biological importance of the
three important groups of lipids: fats, phospholipids and steroids.
11. Identify an ester linkage and describe how it if formed.
12. Distinguish between a saturated and unsaturated fat, and list some unique emergent
properties that are consequence of these structural differences.
13. Describe the characteristics that distinguish proteins from the other major classes of
macromolecules, and explain the biologically important functions of this group.
14. List and recognize four major components of amino acid, and explain how amino acids
may be grouped according to the physical and chemical properties of the side chains.
15. Identify a peptide bond and explain how it is formed.
16. Explain what determines protein conformation and why it is important.
17. Define primary structure and describe how it may be deduced in the laboratory.
18. Describe the two types of secondary protein structure, and explain the role of hydrogen
bonds in maintaining the structure.
19. Explain how weak interactions and disulfide bridges contribute to tertiary protein structure.
20. Using collagen and hemoglobin as examples, describe quaternary protein structure.
21. Define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured.
22. Describe the characteristics that distinguish nucleic acids from the other major groups of
macromolecules.
23. Summarize the functions of nucleic acids.
24. List the major components of a nucleotide, and describe how these monomers are linked
together to form a nucleic acid.
25. Distinguish between a pyrimidine and a purine.
26. List the functions of nucleotides.
27. Briefly describe the three-dimensional structure of DNA.
Chapter 6: An Introduction to Metabolism
Key Terms:
Metabolism
bond energy
Catabolic pathways
heat of reaction
Anabolic pathways
enthalpy
Kinetic energy
exothermic
Potential energy
endothermic
Thermodynamics
spontaneous reaction
Closed system
free energy
Open system
exergonic
Entropy
endergonic
equilibrium
catalyst
enzyme
activation energy
transition state
substrate
active site
feedback inhibition
saturation
cofactors
coenzymes
competitive
inhibitors
noncompetitive
inhibitors
cooperativity
induced fit
Objectives:
1. Explain the role of catabolic and anabolic pathways in the energy exchanges of cellular
metabolism.
2. Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy.
3. Distinguish between open and closed systems.
4. Explain, in their own words, the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
5. Explain why highly ordered living organisms do not violate the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.
6. Distinguish between entropy and enthalpy.
7. Write the Gibbs equation for free energy change.
8. Explain how changes in enthalpy, entropy and temperature influence the maximum amount
of useable energy that can be harvested from a reaction.
9. Explain the usefulness of free energy.
10. List two major factors capable of driving spontaneous processes.
11. Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions.
12. Describe the relationship between equilibrium and free energy change for a reaction.
13. Describe the function of ATP in the cell.
14. List the three components of ATP and identify the major classes of macromolecules to
which it belongs.
15. Explain how ATP performs cellular work.
16. Explain why chemical disequilibrium is essential for life.
17. Describe the energy profile of a chemical reaction including activation energy (E A), free
energy change (deltaG) and transition state.
18. Describe the function of enzymes in biological systems.
19. Explain the relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specificity.
20. Explain the induced fit model of enzyme function and describe the catalytic cycle of an
enzyme.
21. Describe several mechanisms by which enzymes lower activation energy.
22. Explain how substrate concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction.
23. Explain how enzyme activity can be regulated or controlled by environmental conditions,
cofactors, enzyme inhibitors and allosteric activation regulators.
24. Distinguish between allosteric activation and cooperativity.
25. Explain how metabolic pathways are regulated.
UNIT II
Chapter 7: A Tour of the Cell
Key Terms:
Magnification
Resolving power
Light microscope
SEM
TEM
Cell fractionation
Cytoplasm
Cytosol
Nucleus
Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Chromosome
Nucleolus
Ribosome
Endomembrane system
Vesicles
Mitochondrial matrix
Gap junctions
endoplasmic reticulum
smooth ER
rough ER
Golgi apparatus
cis face
trans face
lysosomes
phagocytosis
macrophages
food vacuole
contractile vacuole
central vacuole
tonoplast
peroxisome
mitochondria
intermembrane space
extracellular matrix
Plasmodesmata
plastid
amyloplast
chromoplast
chloroplast
thylakoid
thylakoid space
grana
cytoskeleton
flagella
microtubules
microfilaments
intermediate filaments
centriole
cilia
centrosome
desmosomes
tight junctions
actin
myosin
basal body
cell wall
collagen
integrin
stroma
tubulin
Objectives:
1. Describe techniques used to study cell structure and function.
2. Distinguish between magnification and resolving power.
3. Describe the principles, advantages and limitations of the light microscope, transmission
electron microscope and scanning electron microscope.
4. Describe the major steps of cell fractionation and explain why it is a useful technique.
5. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
6. Explain why there are both upper and lower limits to cell size.
7. Explain why compartmentalization is important in eukaryotic cells.
8. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus, and briefly explain how the nucleus
controls protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
9. Describe the structure and function of a eukaryotic ribosome.
10. List the components of the endomembrane system, describe their structures and functions
and summarize the relationships among them.
11. Explain how impaired lysosomal function causes the symptoms of storage diseases.
12. Describe the types of vacuoles and explain how their functions differ.
13. Explain the role of peroxisomes in eukaryotic cells.
14. Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and explain the importance of
compartmentalization in mitochondrial function.
15. Distinguish among amyloplast, chromoplast and chloroplast.
16. Identify the three functional compartments of a chloroplast, and explain the importance of
compartmentalization in chloroplast function.
17. Describe probable functions of the cytoskeleton.
18. Describe the structure, monomers and functions of microtubules, microfilaments and
intermediate filaments.
19. Explain how the ultrastructure of cilia and flagella relates to their function.
20. Describe the structure and list some functions of the extracellular matrix in animal cells.
21. Describe the structure of intercellular junctions found in plant and animal cells, and relate
their structure to function.
Chapter 8: Membrane Structure and Function
Key Terms:
Phospholipids bilayer
carrier-mediated
Amphipathic
transport
Fluid mosaic model
permease
Integral protein
diffusion
Peripheral proteins
osmosis
Selective permeability
dialysis
Facilitated diffusion
active transport
Concentration gradient
bulk flow
Membrane potential
electrogenic pump
Signal-transduction
second messenger
Pathway
water potential
osmotic potential
solution
solvent
solute
hypertonic
hypotonic
isotonic
sodium-potassium
pump
proton pump
cotransport
exocytosis
endocytosis
phagocytosis
pinocytosis
receptormediated
endocytosis
Objectives:
1. Describe the function of the plasma membrane.
2. Explain how scientists used early experimental evidence to make deductions about
membrane structure and function.
3. Describe the fluid properties of the cell membrane and explain how membrane fluidity is
influenced by membrane composition.
4. Explain how hydrophobic interactions determine membrane structure and function.
5. Describe how proteins are spatially arranged in the cell membrane and how they contribute
to membrane function.
6. Describe factors that affect selective permeability of membranes.
7. Define diffusion: explain what causes it and why it is a spontaneous process.
8. Explain what regulates the rate of passive transport.
9. Explain why a concentration gradient across membrane represents potential energy.
10. Define osmosis and predict the direction of water movement based upon differences in
solute concentration.
11. Explain how bound water affects the osmotic behavior of dilute biological fluids.
12. Describe how living cells with and without walls regulate water balance.
13. Explain how transport proteins are similar to enzymes.
14. Describe one model for facilitated diffusion.
15. Explain how active transport differs from diffusion.
16. Explain how large molecules are transported across the cell membrane.
17. Give an example of receptor-mediated endocytosis.
18. Explain how membrane proteins interface with and respond to changes in the extracellular
environment.
19. Describe a simple signal-transduction pathway across the membrane including the roles of
first and second messengers.
Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy
Key Terms:
Fermentation
NAD+
cytochrome
Cellular respiration
FADH2
heme group
Phophorylation
ETC
dehydrogenase
Oxidative phophorylation ubiquinone
proton pump
Substrate-level
cristae
proton gradient
Phophorylation
intermembrane chemiosmosis
Coenzyme
space electon carrier
proton-motive force
ATP synthase
aerobic
anaerobic
oxidation
reduction
Kreb’s cycle
Objectives:
1. Diagram energy flow through the biosphere.
2. Describe the overall summary equation for cellular respiration.
3. Destinguish between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.
4. Explain how exergonic oxidation of glucose is coupled by endergonic synthesis of ATP.
5. Define oxidation and reduction.
6. Explain how redox reactions are involved in energy exchanges.
7. Define coenzyme and list those involved in respiration.
8. Describe the role of ATP in coupled reactions.
9. Describe the structure of coenzymes and explain how they function in redox reactions.
10. Explain why ATP is required for the preparatory steps of glycolysis.
11. Write a summary equation for glycolysis and describe where it occurs in the cell.
12. Describe how pyruvate links glycolysis to Kreb’s cycle.
13. Describe the location and the molecules out of Kreb’s cycle.
14. Explain how the exergonic slide of electrons down the ETC is coupled in the endergonic
production of ATP by chemiosmosis.
15. Summarize the net ATP yield from the oxidation of a glucose molecule.
16. Describe the fate of pyruvate in the absence of oxygen.
17. Explain why fermentation is necessary.
18. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism.
Chapter 10: Photosynthesis
Key Terms:
Autotrophic
electromagnetic radiation
Photoautotroph
wavelength
Chemoautotroph electromagnetic spectrum
Heterotrophic
photon
Chloroplast
pigments
Chlorophyll
spectrophotometer
Mesophyll
absorption spectrum
Stomata
chlorophyll a
Vascular bundles stroma
Thylakoid
thylakoid membrane
Thylakoid space CAM pathway
accessory pigments
chlorophyll b
carotenoids
ground state
excited state
photosystem
antenna assembly
reaction center
primary elec. acceptor
P700
P680
cyclic electron flow
noncyclic el. flow
photophosphorylation
Calvin cycle
PGAL
rubisco
RuBP
Melvin Calvin
photorespiration
C4 pathway
Objectives:
1. Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
2. Distinguish between photosynthetic autotrophs and chemosynthetic autotrophs.
3. Describe the location and structure of the chloroplast.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Explain how chloroplast structure relates to its function.
Write a summary equation for photosynthesis.
Describe the wavelike and particlelike behaviors of light.
List the wavelengths of light that are most effective for photosynthesis.
Explain what happens when chlorophyll or accessory pigments absorb photons.
List the components of a photosystem and explain their function.
Trace electron flow through photosystems II and I.
Compare cyclic and noncyclic electron flow and explain the relationship between these
components of the light reactions.
Summarize the light reactions with an equation and describe where they occur.
Summarize the carbon-fixing reactions of the Calvin cycle.
Describe the role of ATP and NADPH in the Calvin cycle.
Describe what happens to rubisco when the O2 concentration is much higher than CO2.
Describe the major consequences of photorespiration.
Describe two important photosynthetic adaptations that minimize photorespiration.
Describe the fate of photosynthetic products.
Chapter11: The Reproduction of Cells
Key Terms:
Cell division
mitosis
Genome
cytokinesis
Density-dependent
interphase
Inhibition
S phase
Somatic cells
G1 phase
Chromosomes
G2 phase
Chromatin
prophase
Sister chromatids
metaphase
Centromere
anaphase
Centriole
telophase
M phase
mitotic spindle
centrosome
kinetochore microtubules
nonkinetochore micro.
asters
metaphase plate
cleavage
cleavage furrow
MPF
transformation
cell plate
binary fission
growth factor
restriction
point
kinase
cyclin
Cdk
cancer
cell cycle
Objectives:
1. Define genome and state what major events must occur during cell division for the entire
genome to be passed on to daughter cells.
2. Describe the process of binary fission in prokaryotes.
3. Describe the composition of chromosomes and explain how chromosomal structure
changes in preparation for cell division.
4. Describe how chromosome number changes throughout the human life cycle.
5. List the phases of the cell cycle and describe the sequence of events that occurs during each
phase.
6. Describe what major events occur during the G1, S and G2 periods of interphase, and
describe what characterizes a G2 interphase cell.
7. Distinguish between interphase and mitosis phase.
8. List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase.
9. Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams.
10. Compare cytokinesis in plants and animals.
11. List several factors, identified from cell tissue-culture studies, which stimulate or inhibit
cell growth.
12. Describe what point in the cell cycle determines whether a cell will.
13. Explain how MPF induces the changes that occur in mitosis and describe what causes the
cyclical change in MPF concentration.
14. Explain how abnormal cell division of cancerous cells differs from normal cell division.
UNIT III
Chapter 12: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles
Key Terms:
Heredity
homologous chromosomes
Genetics
variation
Gene
sex chromosomes
Life cycle
diploid
Somatic cell
haploid
Asexual repr.
Gamete
Sexual repr.
Fertilization
zygote
meiosis
meiosis I
synapsis
tetrad
sporophyte
karyotype
chiasmata
locus
autosome
independent assortment
sister chromatid
crossing over
Objectives:
1. Explain why organisms only reproduce their own kind, and why offspring more closely
resemble their parents than unrelated individuals of the same species.
2. Explain what makes heredity possible.
3. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction.
4. Indicate where in the human body mitosis and meiosis occur; which cells are the result of
mitosis and meiosis; and which cells are diploid or haploid.
5. Distinguish sporophyte and gametophyte.
6. List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events characteristics of each
phase.
7. Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams.
8. Describe the process of synapsis during prophase I and explain how genetic recombination
occurs.
9. Describe key differences between mitosis and meiosis and distinguish between the
chromosomal arrangement during metaphase of both processes.
10. Distinguish between mitotic interphase and meiotic interphase.
11. Explain how independent assortment, crossing over and random fertilization contribute to
genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms.
12. Explain why inheritable variation was crucial to Darwin’s theory of evolution.
13. List the sources of genetic variation.
Chapter 13: Mendel and the Gene Idea
Key Terms:
Blending theory
heterozygous
Gregor Mendel
phenotype
True-breeding
genotype
P generation
monohybrid
F1 generation
testcross
F2 generation
dihybrid
Mendel’s law of
law of independent
Segragation
assortment
Recessive allele
incomplete dominant
ABO blood system
pleiotropy
epistasis
quantitative character
polygenic inheritance
norm of reaction
lethal recessive
carriers
cystic fibrosis
lethal dominant
Huntington’s disease
amniocentesis
chorionic
villi sampling
ultrasound
alleles
dominant allele
codominance
Homozygous
multiple alleles
sickle-cell disease
Tay-Sachs disease
Objectives:
1. Describe the favored model of heredity in the 19th century prior to Mendel, and explain
how this model was inconsistent with observations.
2. Explain how Mendel’s hypothesis of inheritance differed from the blending theory of
inheritance.
3. List several features of Mendel’s methods that contributed to his success.
4. List four components of Mendel’s hypothesis that led him to deduce the law of segregation.
5. State, in their own words, Mendel’s law of segregation.
6. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a monohybrid cross and state the phenotypic
and genotypic ratios of F2 generation.
7. Distinguish between genotype and phenotype; heterozygous and homozygous; dominant
and recessive.
8. Explain how a testcross can be used to determine if a dominant phenotype is homozygous
or heterozygous.
9. Define random event, and explain why it is significant that allele segregation during
meiosis and fusion of gametes at fertilization are random events.
10. Use the rule of multiplication to calculate the probability that a particular F2 individual will
be homozygous recessive or dominant.
11. Given a Mendelian cross, use the rule of addition to calculate the probability that a
particular F2 individual will be heterozygous.
12. State Mendel’s law of independent assortment.
13. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross and state the phenotypic and
genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
14. Give an example of incomplete dominance and explain why it is not evidence for the
blending theory of inheritance.
15. Explain how the phenotypic expression of the heterozygote is affected by complete
dominance, incomplete dominance and codominance.
16. Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the IA and IB alleles are
said to be codominant.
17. Define and give examples of pleiotropy.
18. Explain what is meant by “one gene is epistatic to another.”
19. Describe a simple model for polygenic inheritance, and explain why most polygenic
characters are described in quantitative terms.
20. Describe how environmental conditions can influence the phenotypic expression of a
character.
21. Given a simple example of a pedigree, deduce the genotypes for some of the family
members.
22. Describe the inheritance and expression of cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease and sickle-cell
disease.
23. Explain how a lethal recessive gene can be maintained in a population.
24. Explain why lethal dominant genes are much more rare than lethal recessive genes.
25. Explain how carrier recognition, fetal testing and newborn screening can be used in genetic
screening and counseling.
Chapter 14: The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Key Terms:
Morgan
locus
Drosophila melanogaster chromosome map
Wild type
map unit
Mutant phenotype
point mutation
Linkage
chromosomal
Sex linkage
mutation
Genetic
autosome
Recombination
sex chromosome
Recombinant
deletion
translocation
Barr body
nondisjunction
aneuploidy
polyploidy
trisomy
triploidy
duplication
inversion
amniocentesis
Down Syndrome
genomic imprinting
Fragile-X syndrome
Huntington’s disease
parental type
Objectives:
1. Explain how the observations of cytologists and geneticists provided the basis for the
chromosome theory of inheritance.
2. Explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism.
3. Define linkage and explain why linkage interferes with independent assortment.
4. Explain how crossing over can unlink genes.
5. Map a linear sequence of genes on a chromosome using given recombination frequencies
from experimental crosses.
6. Describe sex determination in humans.
7. Describe the inheritance of a sex-linked gene such as color-blindness.
8. Explain why a recessive sex-linked gene is always expressed in human males.
9. Distinguish among nondisjunction, aneuploidy and polyploidy; explain how these major
chromosomal changes occur and describe the consequences.
10. Distinguish between trisomy and triploidy.
11. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, translocations and inversions.
12. Describe the effects of alterations in chromosome structure, and explain the role of position
effects in altering the phenotype.
13. Describe the type of chromosomal alterations implicated in the following human disorders:
Down syndrome, Klineferlter syndrome, extra X, triple-X syndrome, Turner syndrome, cri
du chat syndrome and chronic myelogenous leukemia.
Chapter 15: The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
Key Terms:
Griffith
deoxyribose
Transromation
ribose
Bacteriophage
nitrogen base
Hershey
purine
Chase
pyrimidine
Chargaff
adenine
Chargaff’s rules
thymine
Watson
guanine
Crick
cytosine
Franklin
nucleoside
Nucleotide
triphosphate
Nucleic acids
semiconservative
replication
conservative
replication
ultracentrifugation
origin of replication
replication fork
replication bubble
helicase
ligase
excision repair
single-strand binding
protein
primer
primase
DNA polymerase
replication complex
Okazaki fragments
leading strand
lagging strand
mismatch repair
antiparallel
Objectives:
1. Explain why researchers originally thought protein was the genetic material.
2. Summarize experiments performed by the following scientists, which provided evidence
that DNA is the genetic material:
a. Griffith
b. Hershey and Chase
c. Chargaff
3. List the three components of a nucleotide.
4. List the nitrogen bases found in DNA and distinguish between pyrimidines and purines.
5. Explain how Watson and Crick deduced the structure of DNA and describe what evidence
they used.
6. Explain the “base-pairing rule” and describe its significance.
7. Describe the structure of DNA and explain what kind of chemical bond connects the
nucleotides of each strand and what type of bond holds the two strands together.
8. Explain semiconservative replication.
9. Describe the process of DNA replication and explain the role of helicase, single strand
binding protein, DNA polymerase, ligase and primase.
10. Explain what energy source drives endergonic synthesis of DNA.
11. Define antiparallel and explain why continuous synthesis of both DNA strands is not
possible.
12. Distinguish between the leading strand and the lagging strand.
13. Explain how the lagging strand is synthesized when DNA polymerase can add nucleotides
only to the 3’ end.
14. Explain the role of DNA polymerase, ligase and repair enzymes in DNA proofreading and
repair.
Chapter 16: From Gene to Protein
Key Terms:
“one gene-one enzyme”
“one gene-one polypeptide”
transcription
codon
mRNA
RNA polymerase
Promoter
P site
A site
Initiation factors
Deletion
Mutagens
terminator
tRNA
anticodon
triphosphate
nucleotide
ribosome
rRNA
intron
exon
start codon
snRNA
elongation factor
CAP(mRNA)
translocation
termination codon
release factor
wobble effect
redundance
hnRNA
RNA splicing
reading frame
frameshift mut.
splicesome
ribozyme
Poly-A-tail
point
mutation
base-pair sub
missense mut
nonsense mut
insertion
snRNPS
Mutagenesis
Objectives:
1. Distinguish between “one gene-one enzyme” hypothesis and “one gene-one polypeptide”,
and explain why the original hypothesis was changed.
2. Explain how RNA differs from DNA.
3. Briefly explain how information flows from gene to protein.
4. Distinguish between transcription and translation.
5. Describe where transcription and translation occur in eukaryotes; explain why it is
significant that, in eukaryotes, transcription and translation are separated in space and time.
6. Define codon, and explain what relationship exists between the linear sequence of codons
on mRNA and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
7. Explain in what way is the genetic code redundant and unambiguous.
8. Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.
9. Explain the process of transcription including the three major steps of initiation, elongation
and termination.
10. Describe the general role of RNA polymerase in transcription.
11. Explain how RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription should begin.
12. Distinguish among mRNA, tRNA and rRNA.
13. Describe the structure of tRNA and explain how the structure is related to function.
14. Given a sequence of bases in DNA, predict the corresponding codons transcribed on
mRNA and the corresponding anticodons of tRNA.
15. Describe the wobble effect.
16. Describe the structure of ribosome, and explain how this structure relates to function.
17. Describe the process of translation, including initiation, elongation and termination and
explain what enzymes, protein factors and energy sources are needed for each step.
18. Describe what determines whether a ribosome will be free in the cytosol or attached to
rough ER.
19. Explain how eukaryotic mRNA is processed before it leaves the nucleus.
20. Describe some biological functions of introns and gene splicing.
21. Explain why base-pair insertions or deletions usually have a greater effect than base-pair
substitutions.
UNIT IV
Chapter 22: Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life
Key Terms:
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
Darwin
evolution
idealism
Linneaus
taxonomy
fossils
Paleontology
Cuvier
gradualism
Lyell
uniformitarianism
Lamarck
HMS Beagle
Galapagos islands
natural selection
Common descent descent with
Malthus
Population
modification modern synthesis
Orthogenesis
population genetics
biogeography
Homology
vestigial organ
phylogeny
natural theology
catastrophism
Hutton
inheritance of aquired charac
Wallace
artificial selection
mutations
homologous structures
Objectives:
1. State the two major points Darwin made in The Origin of Species concerning the Earth’s
biota.
2. Describe Cuvier’s contribution to paleontology.
3. Explain how Cuvier and his followers used the concept of catastrophism to oppose
evolution.
4. Explain how the principle of gradualism and Lyell’s theory of uniformitarianism influenced
Darwin’s ideas about evolution.
5. Describe Lamarck’s model for how adaptations evolve.
6. Describe how Wallace influenced Darwin.
7. Explain what Darwin meant by the principle of common descent and “descent with
modification.”
8. Explain what evidence convinced Darwin that species change over time.
9. State three inferences Darwin made from his observations, which led him to propose
natural selection as mechanism for evolutionary change.
10. Explain why variation was so important to Darwin’s theory.
11. Explain how Malthus’ essay influenced Darwin.
12. Distinguish between artificial and natural selection.
13. Explain why the population is the smallest unit that can evolve.
14. Explain how natural selection results in evolutionary change.
15. Explain why the emergence of population genetics was an important turning point for
evolutionary theory.
16. Describe the lines of evidence Darwin used to support the principle of common descent.
17. Describe how molecular biology can be used to study the evolutionary relationships among
organisms.
18. Explain the problem with the statement that Darwinism is “just a theory.”
19. Distinguish between the scientific and colloquial use of the word “theory.”
Chapter 23: The Evolution of Population
Key Terms:
Species
inbreeding
Gene flow
assortative mating
Gene pool
polygenic traits
Fixed allele
morphs
Microevolution
polymorphic
Hardy-Weinberg geographic variation
Equilibrium cline
Nonadaptive
point-mutation
Sampling error
bottleneck effect
sexual recombination
balanced polymorphism
heterozygous advantage
sickle-cell anemia
frequency-dependent
selection
neutral variation
adaptive evolution
founder effect
relative fitness
pleiotropy
stabilizing selection
directional selection
diversifying select.
sexual dimorphism
sexual selection
genetic drift
Objectives:
1. Explain how microevolutionary change can affect gene pool.
2. State the Hardy-Weinberg theorem.
3. Write the general Hardy-Weinberg equation and use it to calculate allele and genotype
frequencies.
4. Explain the consequences of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
5. Describe the usefulness of the Hardy-Weinberg model to population geneticists.
6. List the conditions a population must meet in order to maintain Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium.
7. Explain how genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, nonrandom mating and natural selection
can cause microevolution.
8. Explain the role of population size in genetic drift.
9. Distinguish between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.
10. Explain why mutation has little quantitative effect on a large population.
11. Describe how inbreeding and assortative mating affect a population’s allele frequencies
and genotype frequencies.
12. List some factors that can produce geographical variation among closely related
populations.
13. Explain why even though mutation can be a source of genetic variability, it contributes a
negligible amount to genetic variation in a population.
14. Explain how genetic variation may be preserved in a natural population.
15. Give the cause of nearly all genetic variation in a population.
16. Describe what selection works on and what factors contribute to the overall fitness of a
genotype.
17. Distinguish among stabilizing selection, directional selection and diversifying selection.
18. Define sexual dimorphism and explain how it can influence evolutionary change.
19. Give at least four reasons why natural selection cannot breed perfect organisms.
Chapter 24: The Origin of Species
Key Terms:
Anagenesis
mechanical isolation
Cladogenesis
gametic isolation
Morphospecies
postzygotic
Biological species reduced hybrid
Reproductive barrier
fertility
Prezygotic
reduced hybrid
Habitat isolation
viability
Temporal isolation behavioral isolation
adaptive radiation
sympatric speciation
peripheral isolate
polyploidy
autopolyploidy
tetraploid
allopolyploidy
adaptive landscape
adaptive peak
peak shift
hybrid zone
gradualism
punctuated equil.
allopatric speciation
Objectives:
1. Distinguish between anagenesis and cladogenesis.
2. Define morphospecies and explain how this concept can be useful to biologists.
3. Define biological species.
4. Describe some limitations of the biological species concept.
5. Explain how gene flow between closely related species can be prevented.
6. Distinguish between prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms.
7. Describe five prezygotic isolating mechanisms and give an example of each.
8. Explain why many hybrids are sterile.
9. Explain how hybrid breakdown maintains separate species even if gene flow occurs.
10. Distinguish between allopatric and sympatric speciation.
11. Explain the allopatric speciation model and describe the role of intraspecific variation and
geographical isolation.
12. Describe the adaptive radiation model and use it to describe how it might be possible to
have many sympatric closely related species even if geographic isolation is necessary for
them to evolve.
13. Define sympatric speciation and explain how polyploidy can cause reproductive isolation.
14. List some points of agreement and disagreement between the two schools of thought about
the tempo of speciation (gradualism vs punctuated equilibrium).
Chapter 24: Tracing Phylogeny: Macroevolution, the Fossil Record, and Systematics
Key Terms:
Macroevolution allometric growth
systematics
DNA sequencing
Fossil
taxonomy
paleontologists
molecular clocks
Sedimentary rock binomial nomenclature
divergence
sedimentation
Genus
convergence
trace fossils
species selection
Petrification
geological time scale
relative dating
index fossil
Absolute dating radiometric dating
half-life
carbon-14
Racemization
preadaptation
biogeography
continental drift
Pangaea
adaptive zone
adaptive radiation
phylogeny
Phylogenetic tree taxon
Homology
analogy
Cladogram
classical evolutionary
Taxonomy
polyphyletic
paraphyletic
convergent evolution cladistics
shared primitive
modern synthesis
character
Objectives:
1. Explain the importance of the fossil record to the study of evolution.
2. Describe how fossils form.
3. Distinguish between relative and absolute dating.
4. Explain how isotopes can be used in absolute dating.
5. Explain how preadaptation can result in macroevolutionary change.
6. Explain how modification of regulatory genes can result in macroevolutionary change.
7. Explain how continental drift may have played a role in macroevolutionary change.
8. Describe how radiation into new adaptive zones could result in macroevolutionary change.
9. Explain how mass extinctions could occur and affect evolution of surviving forms.
10. Distinguish between a taxon and taxonomy.
11. Describe the contribution Linneaus made to biology.
12. Distinguish between a taxon and a category.
13. List the major taxonomic categories from the most to least inclusive.
14. Explain why it is important when constructing a phylogeny to distinguish between
homologous and analogous character traits.
15. Distinguish between homologous and analogous structures.
16. Distinguish between a monophyletic and polyphyletic group, and explain what is meant by
a “natural taxon.”