Download Материал для практических занятий

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Материал для подготовки к практическим занятиям
I.
Industrial and Civil Engineering
Промышленное и гражданское Строительство
Текст 1
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
From the History of Building
Man has always been a builder. The first houses in different countries of the
world were made of wood. In other regions the most convenient building material
was stone.
The ancient Egyptians erected temples, palaces. Having dried the bricks in the
sun, they put up four walls, and above these they placed a flat roof. The roof was
flat because there was very little rain in Egypt. Egyptian builders gave the world
the column which has played an important part in the history of building. Most of
the buildings of old times were based upon the column and beam method of
construction.
The Greeks built a slanting roof because there was much rain in their country.
The Romans added the arch, thus increasing strength and beauty to their buildings.
Since the middle Ages, brickwork has been in constant use everywhere.
In our country architecture flourished for the first time in Kiev Russ. The
churches of the time were strong buildings with thick walls and small windows.
During the last hundred years many new methods of building have been
discovered. The use of precast concrete is a very advanced construction technique.
Nowadays houses are often built of complete concrete structural units which are
factory-made and assembled on the spot.
since the middle ages – начиная со средних веков
a flat roof – плоская крыша
a slanting roof – покатая крыша
the column and beam method of construction –
строительства
an arch – арка
a brickwork – кирпичная кладка
precast concrete – сборный бетон
стоечно-балочный метод
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
Most of the buildings of old times were based upon …
a) concrete structural units
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b) the use of steel
c) the column and beam method of construction
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. Did ancient people use wood or bricks to build their houses?
2. What kinds of buildings did the ancient Egyptians erect?
3. What method of construction was used for most of the buildings of old times?
4. Why did the Greeks build a slanting roof?
5. What building materials are used nowadays?
Текст 2
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Town planning
The purpose of a town plan is to give the greatest possible freedom to the
individual. The new development absorbs or modifies an existing environment,
and so before it can be designed it is necessary to find out about that environment.
It is also necessary to do research of population growth, the distance from work to
home, the preferences for different types of dwelling, the amount of sunshine in
rooms, the degree of atmospheric pollution and so on. After the survey is complete
a forecast of future development is made in the form of a map: the master plan or
development plan. The plan of the city must be flexible so that it may extend and
renew its dwellings, reconstruct its working places, complete its communications
and avoid congestion in every part.
The plan is never a complete and fixed thing, but one that is continually being
adapted to the changing needs of the community for whom it is designed. The
flexible plan, preceded by a survey, is one of the most revolutionary ideas that man
has ever had about the control of his environment.
Most towns today have a characteristic functional pattern as follows: a central
core containing the principal shopping centre, business zones, surrounded by
suburbs of houses. Most town planners accept the traditional town pattern. In the
preparation of a master plan they are preoccupied with the definition of the town
centre, industrial areas, and the areas of housing; the creation of open space for
recreation, the laying down of a pattern of main roads which run between the builtup areas.
The master plan thus has to define the ultimate growth of the town, but though
the master plan is a diagram, and even a flexible one, it is the structure upon which
all future development is to take place.
forecast – прогноз
a master plan – генеральный план застройки
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congestion – перенаселенность, скопление
a pattern – образец
suburbs – окраинные районы
housing – жилищное строительство
recreation – отдых
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
Before a town plan is designed, it is necessary ...
a) to renew and extend the dwellings
b) to make a forecast of future development in the form of a map
c) to find out about existing environment
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What is the purpose of a town plan?
2. When is a forecast of future development made?
3. Why must the plan of the city be flexible?
4. Most towns today have a characteristic functional pattern, haven't they?
5. What does the master plan define?
Текст 3
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Building Constructions
The buildings erected can be divided into two broad classifications: they are
either for housing or for industrial purposes. As far as material is concerned the
buildings can be divided into stone, wood and concrete types. The buildings made
of stone; brick or concrete blocks are durable, fireproof and have poor heat
conductivity. Nowadays houses are often built of complete structural units which
are factory-made and assembled on the spot.
The main parts of a building are a foundation, a framework, floors and a roof.
In order to build a house first an excavation must be dug. After that the foundation
is constructed to keep the walls and floors from the contact with soil. It may be of
stone, bricks, concrete. Then a framework is raised. It is the part of a building on
which the stability of the structure depends. This part of a building carries the loads
from the roof and floors. The framework is closed with various materials in the
form of panels. Floors divide the building into stories. They may be of timber,
reinforced concrete or other materials. The floors are supported on beams. A roof
is the topmost part of a building. Its function is to cover the building and protect it
from rain and wind. Roofs also tie the walls and give strength and firmness to the
structure. Wood, metal, tiling, bitumen felt and other materials are used for roofs.
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Today builders make use of many materials: aluminium, plastics, alloys,
reinforced concrete panels, prestressed concrete elements, metal frames. Glassfiber reinforced concrete is considered the ideal material, which will provide the
desired qualities. Among these characteristics are the material’s lightness and ease
of handling, its strength and durability, its visual attractiveness and cost
effectiveness.
heat conductivity – теплопроводность
factory-made – изготовленные на заводе
assembled on the spot – смонтированные на месте
a framework - каркас
a floor - перекрытие
reinforced concrete - железобетон
a beam - балка
prestressed concrete - предварительно напряженный бетон
durability - долговечность
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
The function of a roof is to ...
a) provide the stability of the structure
b) cover the building, give strength and firmness to the structure
c) carry the loads from the floors
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. How can the buildings be divided?
2. What types of buildings are erected according to the materials used?
3. What are the main parts of a building?
4. A framework carries the loads from the roof and floors, doesn’t it?
5. What materials do builders use in building construction today?
II.
Road Engineering
Дорожное строительство
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Traffic Problems Can Be Solved
Advertisements for cars don’t show the reality of driving. Cities and towns all
over the world have a huge problem: traffic jams. Of course cars are symbols of
freedom and wealth. They represent a personal choice to travel when and where
you want to but when you are stuck in a traffic jam; all cars are just little metal
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boxes to sit in.
There are millions of cars on the road today. How do cities cope with this?
Some of them have found solutions to their traffic problems.
The city Curitiba in Brazil has very few traffic jams. This is because the authorities
have developed an efficient bus network to transport people rapidly around the
city. Main roads have special lanes for buses only, so that they do not get caught in
traffic jams.
In Milan, cars need a permit to enter the city center. Only residents and some
employers can obtain a permit, so very little traffic now drives in or out. Nearly
everyone parks on the edge of the restricted area and heads for the center on foot.
As a result, Milan now has many pedestrian-only shopping streets.
In Athens, car owners are only allowed to drive into the city centre every other
day. They must match the final number of their car number plate to the day’s date
– if the date is an even number, and so is the final number of the number plate,
then they can enter the inner-city area. The same goes for odd number plates and
odd dates. This means that 50 per cent of all cars must stay at home each day.
a traffic jam – дорожная пробка
to be stuck – застревать
to cope – справляться
a bus network – сеть автобусных маршрутов
a lane – полоса движения
residents – постоянные жители
an employer – предприниматель
on foot – пешком
every other day – через день
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
Only residents and some employers can obtain a permit, so …
a) car owners are only allowed to drive into the city centre every other day
b) very little traffic now drives in or out
c) they do not get caught in traffic jams
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What is a huge problem of cities and towns all over the world?
2. Have some cities found solutions to their traffic problems?
3. Why does the city Curitiba have very few traffic jams?
4. Milan now has many pedestrian-only shopping streets, hasn’t it?
5. How many cars must stay at home each day in Athens?
III.
Economy and Management
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Экономика и управление
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Contracts
Business transactions usually start with enquiries. As a rule the prospective
buyer gets the name and the address of the prospective seller either at an
exhibition, from an advertisement in a newspaper, magazine, and thanks to a
television or radio commercial. All these channels of information and advertising
are very important. Enquiries can be sent by mail, by telex or by fax. Sometimes
enquiries can be made orally, by telephone. In the enquiry the prospective buyer
states in what goods exactly he/she is interested and asks for details on the price
and terms of sale.
After considering the enquiry for some time the seller sends an offer in reply.
The offer usually quotes the price and stipulates terms of delivery, terms of
payment, time of delivery and some other necessary details.
In the course of making enquiries and offers, the parties very often meet to agree
upon one or another question.
After the buyer receives the offer he carefully studies it. Then, very often, he
has a few talks or exchanges letters with the seller. After the two parties come to an
agreement about terms and conditions of the transaction they sign a contract.
Contracts usually contain the following information: date of the contract, names of
the buyer and the seller, description of the goods, price and the total value, terms of
delivery, terms of payment, etc.
an enquiry– запрос
a transaction – сделка
to stipulate – устанавливать
terms of payment – условия платежа
an offer – предложение
commercial – реклама на телевидении
terms of delivery – условия поставки
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
Business transactions start with …
a) an advertisement
b) offers
c) enquiries
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. How can a person or a company get the name and address of the seller?
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2. How can enquiries be sent?
3. What information do offers usually give?
4. Why do the parties often meet in the course of making enquiries and offers?
5. What information does the contract usually contain?
IV. Automation of Technological Processes
Автоматизация технологических процессов
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Basic Computers
The computer is the heart of any direct digital control (DDC) system.
Although there are many models of DDC computer systems currently available,
most operate in the same basic way and are similar in design to personal
computers.
In their simplest form, all computers consist of hardware and software. The
term hardware includes all the components that a computer is assembled from
the central processing unit, memory, input and output terminals, operator
display terminal, keypad, and peripheral devices.
Peripheral equipment is used to link the computer's internal environment to
the outside world to allow humans to access stored information and to allow
for machine-to-machine communications in a computer network.
Software is a series of instructions that tell the computer how to operate.
These instruction sets or commands are packaged together to form programmes
which are designed to manipulate data for a specific purpose. There are several
echelons of software used in computers, which range from programs that tell the
computer how to handle basic tasks to programs that guide the computer
through difficult data processing. Computers commonly use several layers of
software running concurrently to guide their operation, and these layers are
transparent to the computer operator.
a direct digital control (DDC) system – система прямого цифрового контроля
hardware – аппаратное обеспечение
software – программное обеспечение
the central processing unit – центральное процессорное устройство
input and output terminal – терминал ввода и вывода
a keypad – вспомогательная клавиатура
peripheral device – периферийное устройство
environment – среда окружения
to access – иметь доступ
data processing – обработка данных
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
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окончания.
Peripheral equipment is used …
a) to link the computer's internal environment to the outside world
b) to form programmes
c) to manipulate data for a specific purpose
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What is the heart of any direct digital control (DDC) system?
2. What do all computers consist of?
3. What components does the hardware include?
4. What is peripheral equipment used to?
5. What does software mean?
V.
Mechanical Engineering
Строительные и дорожные машины
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Cars: Passion or Problem
For some people, the car is a convenient form of transportation. But for others,
the car is an exciting hobby. Some people spend their lives collecting valuable
cars. Others drive them in races. For many people cars are more than
transportation: they are a source of passion and pleasure. Yet cars can also be a
source of many problems.
In 1903, Henry Ford began selling Model T car for $825. His company, Ford
Motors, was the first to produce cars in large numbers. This made the car available
to large numbers of people and helped them to travel long distances quickly and
easily. The car has brought people much closer to places of work, study, and
entertainment. Many people also work in car-related industries: fixing cars,
washing cars, advertising cars, and selling car products such as stereos and cellular
phones.
Most Americans buy a new car every five or six years. This means that one
American may own a dozen cars in a lifetime. In fact, there are more cars than
people in the United States. In New York City, 2.5 million cars move in and out of
the city each day. In this traffic, the average speed is sometimes 8.1 miles per hour.
This speed could easily be reached by riding a horse instead of driving a car. But
New Yorkers continue to drive, just as people do in California, where freeways are
often crowded. Many people are unhappy with car traffic and pollution, as well as
with the use of beautiful land for building new roads.
Cars are important to nearly everyone, including engineers, businesspeople,
environmentalists, and even poets. Poet Curt Brown believes that cars are part of
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our passion for new places and new experiences. According to Brown, this “very,
very comfortable flying chair” will continue to bring us travel and adventure, no
matter how it changes the future.
fixing cars - ремонт автомобилей
a cellular phone - сотовый телефон
a freeway - автострада
crowded - перегружены
an environmentalist - эколог
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
For many people, cars are more than transportation: …
a) many people also work in car industries
b) they are a source of passion and pleasure
c) many people are unhappy with car traffic and pollution
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. Is the car a convenient form of transportation?
2. Can cars also be a source of many problems?
3. What company was the first to produce cars in large numbers?
4. What are many people unhappy with?
5. Who are cars important to?
VI. Heating and Ventilation
Отопление и вентиляция
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Energy and Its Sources
The consumption of energy is expected to grow. The amount of energy
consumed by a country is closely connected with its degree of technological
development and industrialization, which are in turn related to the people's
standard of living.
Energy can be classified according to its sources. Coal, oil, and natural gas are
«fossil fuels» which are extremely useful raw materials. But when they are burned
for fuel, harmful pollution may result and there is a great waste of natural
resources.
Wood was the main source a hundred years ago. The growth of coal usage in the
early 1900s is associated with rapidly increasing industrial development. There
followed a great expansion in the consumption of natural gas and fuel oil for
heating, electrical generation and especially transportation.
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Several conclusions can be made: research and development work to find new
sources of energy and ways of increasing efficiency are needed; the new sources of
fuels must be fully developed and utilized. Natural gas is a popular source of
energy because of its convenience for use and cleanliness in burning. It is generally
believed that gas will be the first fossil fuel to be in short supply, and the cost of oil
extraction is high.
To these sources we can add the energy obtained from water motion and the
sun. Solar power is often mentioned as the logical alternative. The amount of
radiant energy that reaches the earth's surface is more than what is needed. For the
generation of electricity, there are serious problems to be solved. To collect and
concentrate the energy by reflectors and converters of present efficiency is the
major difficulty. There remain many technological problems in this area.
Man is consuming the remaining resources at a rate that they may last only a
few centuries. Efforts to eliminate the extravagant waste of energy are needed.
Several conclusions can be made: research and development work to find new
sources of energy and ways of increasing efficiency are needed; the new sources of
fuels must be fully developed and utilized. And we must give a serious
consideration nuclear energy, i.e. the energy from nuclear reactions, the burning of
nuclear fuel.
consumption - потребление
fossil fuels – ископаемое топливо
pollution - загрязнение
conveniently- легко, просто, удобно
generation – поколение
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
The amount of energy consumed by a country is closely connected with …
a) its degree of technological development and industrialization, which are in turn
related to the people's standard of living
b) its sources
c) research and development work
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What is the amount of energy consumed by a country connected with?
2. What kinds of fuels can you name?
3. What alternative sources of energy do you know?
4. To collect and concentrate the energy by reflectors and converters of present
efficiency is the major difficulty, isn’t it?
5. What conclusions can be made to find new sources of energy?
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VII. Water Supply and Water Disposal
Водоснабжение и водоотведение
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Water
Water can appear in three phases. It takes many different forms on Earth: water
vapour and clouds in the sky; seawater and rarely icebergs in the ocean; glaciers
and rivers in the mountains; and aquifers in the ground.
Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it different tastes and
odors. Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or potable water.
Water that is not potable can be made potable by distillation (heating it until it
becomes water vapour, and then capturing the vapour without any of the impurities
it leaves behind), or by other methods (chemical or heat treatment that kills
bacteria).
This natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, and its availability is
a major social and economic concern. Currently, about one billion people around
the world routinely drink unhealthy water. Most countries accepted the goal of
halving by 2015 the number of people worldwide who do not have access to safe
water. Water, however, is not a finite resource (like petroleum is), but rather recirculated as potable water in precipitation in quantities many degrees of
magnitude higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small
quantity of water in reserve in the earth. Water-poor countries use importation of
goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human
consumption), since the manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times
products' masses in water.
The problem of protecting natural water resources has grown very pressing for
many countries since the beginning of the second half of the 20th century. The
development of human society, the growth of civilization and social and technical
progress have resulted in the changing of the composition of natural water
resources. The rivers, lakes and ground-waters contain today the products of
mechanical, chemical and biological pollution.
dissolve - растворять
consumption - потребление
potable – годный для питья
quantity - количество
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
The problem of protecting natural water resources has grown very pressing for
many countries since…
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a) nowadays
b) the beginning of the second half of the 20th century
c) the beginning of the second half of the 19th century
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What forms does water take on Earth?
2. What is called drinking water or potable water?
3. Water as natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, isn’t it?
4. What do water-poor countries use as the primary method?
5. Why has changed the composition of natural water resources?
VIII. Property Examination and Administration
Экспертиза и управление недвижимостью
Building Materials Строительные материалы
Задание № 1. Переведите текст со словарем.
Building Materials
The importance of the building materials industry in our national economy is
enormous as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction work.
It is common knowledge that today the manufacture of building materials
doesn’t lag behind the demands for them.
The main current task is to decrease steadily the cost price of manufacture.
All building materials are divided into 3 groups: main building materials, binding
materials and secondary or auxiliary materials.
1. Main building materials such as rocks and artificial stones, timber and
metals, which are used for bearing structures.
2. Binding materials such as lime, gypsum and cement which are used for
jointing different planes.
3. Secondary or auxiliary materials which are used for interior parts of the
building, such as tiling, synthetic linoleum, coating and other facing materials.
If materials do not require any technological changes in their chemical
structure they are called natural building materials. These are stone, clay, sand,
lime and timber. Many of these materials have been known from time immemorial.
Thus bricks have been used in building for more than 12, 000 years and the ancient
Pyramids were constructed of stone.
Cement, clay products (bricks) and concrete are examples of artificial
building materials.
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Along with traditional building materials new ones have been created, such
as reinforced concrete, lightweight concrete, precast prestressed concrete, etc.
The newest building materials created nowadays comprise film products,
alloys, plastics, glues and others. As to their qualities building materials should be
durable, strong, water resistant, acid resistant, heat resistant, etc. Some of them
should also have a pleasant appearance.
Materials with universal properties are as yet a challenge of the future.
enormous - огромный
output - выпуск
to govern - определять, влиять
rate - скорость
to lag behind - отставать
demand - спрос
current – текущий
to speed up – ускорять
cost price - себестоимость
capital investment - капиталовложения
secondary - вторичный
auxiliary - вспомогательный
interior - adj. внутренний, n. интерьер
precast prestressed concrete - сборный предварительно напряженный бетон
challenge - зд. задача
Задание № 2. Закончите предложение, выбрав соответствующий вариант
окончания.
Tiling, synthetic linoleum, coating and other facing materials are called …
a) secondary or auxiliary materials
b) main building materials
c) natural building materials
Задание № 3. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What can you say about the importance of the building materials industry?
2. Does the manufacture of building materials lag behind the demand for them?
3. What is the main current task of the industry of building materials?
4. What groups are all building materials divided into?
5. What main building materials are there?
6. What are main building materials used for?
7. What binding materials are there?
8. What are binding materials used for?
9. What secondary building materials are there?
10. What are auxiliary building materials used for?
9. What natural building materials do you know?
10. What artificial building materials do you know?
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11. What new building materials have been created along with traditional building
materials?
12. What materials does the newest building material group comprise?
Тексты для самостоятельного чтения
I. Industrial and Civil Engineering
Промышленное и гражданское строительство
Текст 1
Housing
Houses are built of wood, brick, stone and concrete. Many new types of
individual houses are made from reed slabs, rolled gypsum concrete panels or
wooden sheets. A lot of houses are built of prefabricated blocks (prefabs). All the
parts of such houses are produced on an industrial scale in factories and assembled
on the spot. The building process takes place under the supervision of foremen and
engineers. The structure is put up by bricklayers, carpenters, plasterers, plumbers,
painters, locksmiths, glass-cutters, etc. In the construction of a house the first step
is to make a careful survey of the site and to examine the soil in order to find its
bearing power. Next, the building lines are staked out. After this, the foundations
are built. The excavation is dug for the basement and then followed by the actual
building of the foundation walls below ground level. Then the foundation work is
finished by providing anchoring sills. That is the case of a wooden building.
In the case of a brick structure, the building of the walls may be directly
proceeded with. Foundations are to keep the floors and walls from contact with the
soil, to act against the action of the frost and to prevent from settlement. The part
upon which the stability of the structure depends is the framework. It carries the
loads which are imposed on it. To do this work properly and safely the floors, walls,
roofs and other parts of the construction must be correctly designed and
proportioned. The designer determines the size of the walls, the floor joists, the
beams, the girders and the parts which make up the framework. He also decides
how they are to be spaced and arranged.
The building of a wall consists in laying down courses of bricks and bonding
them together with mortar. Walls are constructed to enclose areas and to support the
weight of floors and roofs. The walls may be solid and hollow.
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Besides brick, stone, concrete and other natural and artificial materials are used for
the construction of walls. When doors or windows are to be made, a lintel is
usually inserted in the wall above the opening. The entrance leading into the house
from the street is called the front door, from the yard – the back door. The window
panes are fastened in with the help of glazier's putty.
1. What materials are houses built of?
2. Where are the parts of houses built of prefabricated blocks produced on?
3. What are the steps in the construction of a wooden building?
4. Who supervises the building process?
5. Who puts up the building structure?
6. What are the steps in the construction of a brick structure?
7. What natural and artificial materials are used for the construction of walls?
Текст 2
The Development of the House
The first houses in different countries of the world were made of wood. At that
time the greater part of our planet was covered with thick forests. Even in those
days men found ways of using wood as a building material. In some places they
tied together the tops of several trees and covered them with the hides (skins) of
animals. In other places they covered them with leaves or grass.
The primitive people's first houses were tents or huts. Primitive building
required no tools. The invention of tools permitted the cutting of stones and timber.
Stone was the most convenient building material in countries where there was not
much wood but plenty of stone.
People began to use stone widely to build their houses many centuries ago.
The column has played an important part in the history of building. Most of the
building of old times was based upon the column and beam method of
construction.
About 4,000 years before our era the Egyptians possessed great constructional
know-how (ability). They built simple houses by present standards. They used
bricks which in their most primitive form were not burned, but were hardened by
being dried in the sun. Since the middle ages, brickwork has been in constant use
everywhere, in every sort of construction and in every architectural style. They
made flat roofs because there was very little rain in Egypt. Their buildings were
simple in construction but very beautiful. We still admire their monuments,
sphinxes and palaces.
Greek builders learned much from Egyptian builders. They built their houses
with slanting roofs because the climate of these two countries differs greatly. Soon
Greek builders became second in column making. But they added the arch, thus
adding much strength and beauty to their buildings.
The use of precast concrete, a very advanced construction technique, has many
advantages over other building materials. Precast building units can be assembled
at the site all the year round in any weather. The precast concrete technique which
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is constantly being improved in our country plays a great role in our extensive
building programme.
1. Why were the first houses in different countries of the world made of wood?
2. What were the primitive people's first houses?
3. What was the most convenient building material in countries where there was
not much wood?
4. What method of construction was most of the building of old times based upon?
5. Why did Egyptians make flat roofs and Greek builders slanting roofs?
6. How did Greek builders add much strength and beauty to their buildings?
7. What are the advantages of the use of precast concrete?
Текст 3
Home, Sweet Home
It is common knowledge that there is no place like home. To the British their
homes are important. They are dedicated to them; they give them a lot of time and
effort, looking after their homes with much love, care and enthusiasm.
More than half of British families own their homes (houses or flats). Others live
in council accommodation and some people rent from private owners.
There are three main types of houses that people live in: detached, semi-detached
and terraced.
A detached house is the most expensive type of home. It stands on its own land and is
not attached to another building. Such houses have privacy from neighbours, and they
are ideal for keen gardeners who can devote plenty of time to work in their garden.
A semi-detached house is joined the house next door by a shared wall. A house of
this kind is less expensive than a detached house, but still offers a good standard of
privacy and comfort. It usually has a small garden at the front and a larger garden at
the back.
A terraced house is usually two- or three-storey high. It is one of a continuous row of
similar houses, joined together by their side walls. Many rows of terraced houses were
originally built for workers in nearby factories or coalmines. A terraced house usually
costs less than a semi-detached or detached house of similar size. There are miles of
terraced houses in most towns. Over a quarter of British families live in them.
There are also other types of buildings in which people live: apartment blocks,
bungalows and country cottages. Bungalows are one-storey houses which are
particularly popular with older people. Apartment blocks are high-rise blocks of flats
which provide accommodation for a lot of city dwellers. But these buildings are not
very popular. About 20% of the populations live in flats. There are more flats in cities
than in rural areas. Most people in Britain traditionally like to live in houses.
1. How many British families own their homes?
2. What are there three main types of houses that people live in?
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3. What is the most expensive type of home?
4. What house is called a semi-detached?
5. What were terraced houses originally built for?
6. What other types of buildings are there in which people live?
7. What houses do most people in Britain traditionally like to live in?
Текст 4
Acquiring Land for Industrial Construction
Recent trends in the real estate market show that increasing numbers of
manufacturers are looking to invest in the construction of new production plants
throughout Russia.
It is essential that the whole development process should be well planned and
professionally executed. The following points are especially important to consider.
Sufficient land plots for industrial construction may be difficult to find in the
vicinity of city centers and available transport routes. According to zoning
regulations, developers can either build production plants on land that is designated
for industrial purposes or obtain a permit to use agricultural land. However, the
transfer from the agricultural to industrial category may take up to one year. It is
forbidden to start construction on agricultural land regardless of any rights to
ownership or unofficial permits.
The developer must familiarize himself with the development plan of the area
where the land plot is located in order to confirm that no urban development is
planned.
Legal due diligence of the site is absolutely necessary to verify the land title,
especially in light of privatization issues.
During construction, the investor typically has the right to only a short-term
lease (1-3-5 years); however, after the title to the property is officially registered,
then the investor may sign a long-term lease (for a maximum of 49 years).
1. What do recent trends in the real estate market show?
2. What should be well planned and professionally executed?
3. Is it difficult to find sufficient land plots for industrial construction?
4. How much time may the transfer from the agricultural to industrial category
take?
5. Why must the developer familiarize himself with the development plan?
6. What is absolutely necessary to verify the land title?
7. Does the investor have the right to any term lease?
Текст 5
Allocation of Land for Construction Project
Land plots owned by the state or municipalities can be allocated for
construction projects under title or lease. Authorities may not refuse to issue land
titles to individuals or companies for construction purposes, unless: the land plots
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are withdrawn from the market; a federal law prohibits land privatization; or the
land plots are reserved for state or municipal needs.
Land can be allocated for construction purposes with or without prior consent
for the location of the facilities to be constructed.
Prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed is required for
land plots to be leased out to commercial organizations. Prior consent is normally
required for investment in industrial projects in or outside populated areas in cases
where no town-planning documentation has been drawn up in relation to such
territories and no rules are in effect for land use and development. In such cases,
determination of the location of the industrial facilities to be constructed requires
thorough analysis of the environmental, architectural, sanitary and other
implications of the planned construction.
Municipalities in urban and rural areas are required to notify their inhabitants of
possible or forthcoming construction projects. In cases where the location of
buildings, structures or facilities affects the common interests of local residents,
decisions to proceed with the projects are to be made taking the opinion of the
local population into account.
Under the Land Code of the Russian Federation, land may be sold or leased out
for construction projects by competitive bidding only, with no requirement for
prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed. This procedure is
used primarily in cities where the executive authorities or municipalities allocate
land plots by tender or auction. Each land plot must be properly prepared for sale
or lease.
Prior consent is not required either in cases where a construction project is to be
located in a city or a rural populated area in accordance with town-planning
documents and rules regarding land use and development.
1. How can land plots be allocated?
2. May authorities refuse to issue land titles?
3. When is prior consent for the location of the facilities required?
4. What does determination of the location of the industrial facilities require?
5. Is the opinion of the local population taken into account?
6. In what cases isn't prior consent required?
Текст 6
Survey
The simplest and most commonly used method of measuring the distance
between two points on the ground is called chain surveying. Angles in surveying
are measured with special instruments called transit (теодолит). In its simplest
form the transit is a telescope mounted above a horizontal circular scale.
Route survey is a survey necessary for the location and construction of
transportation or communication lines such as highways railroads, canals,
transmission lines and pipe-lines. The preliminary work consists of a topographic
survey.
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City surveying is the term frequently applied to the operation of laying out lots
and to the municipal surveys made in connection with the construction of streets,
water supply systems and sewers.
The maps and data produced by surveyors are used by civil engineers in many
ways. Before construction begins the exact position of the various parts of the dam,
or the track of the railway or road, are fixed on the ground by using normal
surveying methods. In choosing the site for a dam, for instance, an engineer can
study on a map the courses of all the rivers and streams in the area. By reading the
contours he can calculate the amount of water which can be stored by building a
dam of a given height in a certain place. In the same way the results of a soil
survey clearly marked on a map will give the engineer vital information about the
foundations. When deciding the route of a railway or road, the gradients, radii of
curves, heights of embankments and depth of cutting can be calculated from data
supplied by the surveyor.
Terrestrial photogrammetry or photographic surveying from ground stations
had been found to be a useful addition to other methods in mapping of
mountainous areas.
1. What is the simplest method of measuring the distance between 2 points on the
ground?
2. How are angles measured in surveying?
3. What is route survey necessary for?
4. What type of survey is made while constructing streets, water supply systems?
5. What should be done before constructing a dam?
6. How are survey data used in road building?
7. What surveying is useful in mountainous areas?
Текст 7
The House
Man has always been a builder. The kind of house he built depended upon the
climate, upon his enemies, and upon the building materials at hand. The first
houses in many parts of the world were made of wood, for in those days the greater
part of the Earth was covered with forests.
In other regions the most convenient building material was stone. Men began
building houses out of stone very long ago. Although they were built without
cement, the remains of a few of them still exist.
The ancient Egyptians built very simple houses, by present standards. Having
dried the bricks in the sun, they put up four walls, and above these they placed a
flat roof. The roof was flat because there was very little rain in Egypt. Although
their buildings were simple in construction, the Egyptian art of building was very
beautiful.
In ancient Russia architecture flourished for the first time in Kiev Russ. The
churches of that time were strong buildings with thick walls and small windows.
Buildings of the 19-th century are characterized by the use of new materials and
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by a great diversity of architectural styles. From the end of the 18-th century iron
and steel became widely used as alternatives to wood.
The 20-th century is notable for widespread use of steel - reinforced concrete.
Architecture of the 20-th century is characterized by very high buildings particularly skyscrapers - and by great diversity of styles which completely differ
from those of the past.
1. What were the first houses made of?
2. The ancient Egyptians built very complex houses, didn't they?
3. Where did Russian architecture flourish for the first time?
4. What are buildings of the 19-th century characterized by?
5. When did reinforced concrete appear?
6. What is the main peculiarity of the 20-th century buildings?
Текст 8
Egyptian Pyramids
Architecture is the art which makes buildings beautiful to look at as well as
useful. There have been many different styles or kinds of architecture in the past
and there are many different styles today in different parts of the world.
Houses are built for dwelling; large buildings are constructed for industrial
purposes; theatres, museums, public and scientific institutions are built for cultural
activities of the people.
Primitive stone structures, huts and tents are the earliest types of human
dwellings. The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are the
colossal pyramids of Egypt most of which were constructed about 6,000 years ago.
The pyramids are large triangular buildings which were placed over the tombs of
Egyptian kings. The best known of the pyramids are a group of three built at Giza
south of Cairo. The largest of these is 482 feet high. The country was rich in hard
and durable stone, but poor in timber and metal, so that the main material used for
construction was granite, and this was the reason for the durability of the pyramids.
Large blocks of stone were transported over long distances by land and water, and
placed into position with the help of the most primitive equipment.
1. What are the purposes of different buildings?
2. Primitive stone structures were the earliest types of dwellings, weren’t they?
3. What are the oldest monuments met within architecture?
4. What kind of buildings are pyramids?
5. Was timber or stone the main material used for construction in Egypt?
6. How were large blocks of stone transported and placed?
Текст 9
Some Building Professions
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Builders construct and reconstruct residential and industrial buildings, bridges,
schools, museums, theatres, hospitals. They build tunnels, power stations, dams. A
lot of people work together to make the house. Civil engineers and architects have
a common aim – to create something which will serve the purpose for which it is
built.
A man who designs buildings and makes the plans for them is called an
architect. He has to think not only of what he wants the building to look like when
it is finished, but also what it is to be used for. He must not forget the sort of
material to be used in the building. This may be stone, brick, wood or steel and
concrete. An architect must know many facts concerning materials, for example
what loads different materials may safely carry - so that there will be no danger of
his building falling down. He must need some knowledge of sculpture, painting,
design, geography, city planning, etc. The structure an architect creates should give
us pleasure, a sense of beauty.
Civil engineer specializes in the building of industrial or dwelling construction.
He is engaged to prepare the plans and specifications and to supervise the
construction of the project. Civil engineer must provide people with all modern
conveniences, such as running water, gas, electricity, central heating, while a
sanitary engineer protects the quality of water by purifying it.
Builders assemble a house from prefabricated units which are delivered to the
construction site. A welder then welds the units to hold them in place. The men of
many other building professions take part in building construction. The
stonemason builds the foundation. The bricklayer builds the walls and other parts
made of bricks. The carpenter erects door and window frames. The plaster makes
walls and ceilings smooth. The slater is employed for putting slates or tiles on the
roof. The plumber lays pipes to carry clean water into the house and waste water
away to the sewers. The electrician runs electric wires and the glazier puts glass in
the window frames.
1. What do builders construct and reconstruct?
2. What aim do civil engineers and architects have?
3. Who is called an architect?
4. An architect must know many facts concerning materials, mustn't he?
5. What are the functions of civil engineer?
6. Who builds the walls?
7. Who is responsible for the water in the house?
II. Road Engineering
Дорожное строительство
Текст 1
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Right-of-Way
The zone which is marked to lay the road is called the road zone or right-ofway. The higher is the technical classification of the road, the wider is the right-ofway for its construction. The road zone includes such parts of a road as a
carriageway, road shoulders, inner and outer slopes, and other parts.
The road surface strip within the limits of which motor vehicles run is called a
carriageway. Usually it is reinforced by means of natural or artificial stone
aggregates. These stone aggregates form the pavement.
The strips of the ground which adjoin the carriageway are called the road
shoulders. The shoulders render lateral support to the pavement. In future the
pavement will always be made of solid materials within the limits of the
carriageway.
To lay the carriageway at the required level above the ground surface a
formation or roadbed is constructed. It is constructed in the form of embankments
or cuttings with side ditches for drainage and the diversion of water.
The formation includes borrow pits – shallow excavations from which the soil
was used for filling the embankments. It also includes spoil banks. Spoil banks are
heaps of excessive soil remaining after the excavation of cuttings.
The carriageway and shoulders are separated from the neighbouring land by
slopes. The cuttings and side ditches have inner and outer slopes. The junction of
the surface of the shoulders and the embankment slope is called the edge of the
roadbed. The distance between the edges is called the width of the roadbed.
1. What is called the road zone or right-of-way?
2. What parts of a road does the road zone include?
3. What is called a carriageway?
4. Is the carriageway usually reinforced by means of natural or artificial stone
aggregates?
5. What is a roadbed constructed for?
6. What is called the edge of the roadbed?
7. What is called the width of the roadbed?
Текст 2
Pavement Structural Layers
To ensure all-year-round operation of vehicles traffic on a road, the carriageway
is covered with a pavement. The pavement is laid on the surface of the roadbed. It
can be rigid or semi-rigid structure. The pavement resists traffic stresses and
climatic factors.
The stresses induced in the pavement by motor vehicle wheels attenuate with
the depth. This enables the pavement to be designed in the form of a multilayer
structure. The pavement consists of the following layers: the surfacing, the
pavement base, the sub-base and the subgrade.
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1. Surfacing is the upper and most rigid layer of the pavement. It is comparatively
thin, but resists well the abrasion and the impacts caused by the wheels, and also
the effect of weather conditions. Usually the surfacing is the most expensive part
of the pavement. Surfacing usually comprises two coats or courses – a course and a
wearing course.
2. Below the surfacing base coat is the pavement base, a strong bearing layer of
stony material or stone with a binding matrix. This layer is designed to distribute
the individual wheel-loads over the roadbed or sub-base. The pavement base is not
subjected to the direct action of automobile wheels.
3. The sub-base is a layer of earth or stone materials, resistant to moisture, inserted
when necessary between the pavement base and the roadbed. The sub-base reduces
the required thickness of the pavement base. The sub-base is made of gravel, slag,
soil treated with binding agents, sand, etc.
4. The subgrade comprises the thoroughly compacted upper layers of the roadbed,
upon which are laid the layers of the pavement.
1. What is the carriageway covered with a pavement for?
2. What structure can the pavement be?
3. What enables the pavement to be designed in the form of a multilayer structure?
4. How many courses does the surfacing comprise?
5. Where is the pavement base laid?
6. What is the pavement base designed for?
7. What does the subgrade comprise?
Текст 3
Side Ditches
For collecting water from the roadbed side ditches, flumes, interception ditches
and drain channeling can be used. Present road construction provides side ditches
parallel with the roadway. A side ditch is intended to collect the water discharged
by the crown. It also collects the water from the roadside. Water from the adjoining
land must be collected by the side ditch too. The side ditch discharges into a
natural outlet at the first opportunity.
Side ditches in cuttings and next to embankments may be excavated to a depth
of up to 0.6 m. These ditches are for the collection of water flowing off the road
surface and from adjoining land during rainfall or snow thawing. The side ditch
may contribute to the drainage of the subgrade because of the evaporation of
moisture from the side ditch inner slopes. However, the major use of the side ditch
is to permit the rapid discharge of water. When this water discharge is not ensured
and ponding occurs, the side ditch becomes a source from which water may
penetrate back under the road, resulting in saturation of the subgrade.
The cross-section of the ditch is either V-typed or trapezoidal. In the case of
impermeable soils and in less favorable conditions of runoff the side ditches can be
given a trapezoidal cross-section with a bottom width of 0.4 m and a depth of up to
0.7-0.8 m from the edge embankment. If the road must be built in dry country with
24
a rapid surface runoff, and the occurrence of ground water is deep, the side ditches
are given the shape of triangular flues of 0.3 m minimum depth. The V-typed side
ditch can be easily constructed and maintained with the blade grader. The V-typed
side ditch cannot be deep and, therefore, it is much safer than the trapezoidal side
ditch.
1. What is the side ditch intended to?
2. What does the side ditch discharge into?
3. Why may the side ditch contribute to the drainage of the subgrade?
4. What is the major use of the side ditch?
5. When does the side ditch become a source from which water may penetrate back
under the road, resulting in saturation of the subgrade?
6. The cross-section of the ditch is either V-typed or trapezoidal, isn’t it?
7. What machine can the side ditch be easily constructed and maintained with?
III. Economy and Management
Экономика и управление
Текст 1
Personnel Management
The most valuable asset of any business is its people. Land, buildings, goods,
and equipment may dominate a balance sheet, but they do not make a business
successful: people do. The best businesses are the ones that have the best people —
capable, creative, energetic people. To attract them requires both ingenuity and
initiative on the part of an employer. But the payoff in productivity is worth it.
Staffing your business with the best people should be one of the highest priorities.
Staffing, leading and controlling are important functions of management. The
main aim of staffing is to fill and keep filled the positions in the organization
structure with competent people. It also involves selecting, hiring, promoting,
planning the career, compensating and training.
Many firms have a personnel department with personnel manager directly
responsible for coordinating activities of the employees.
Yet, whether or not there is a personnel department, all managers are responsible
for managing human resources.
1. What do business successful?
2. What functions of management are named?
3. What assets of a business are mentioned in the text?
4. Which of them is characterized as the most valuable? Why?
5. What does the term "to staff" mean?
6. Who is directly responsible for coordinating activities of the employees?
7. What people are responsible for personnel management in an organization?
25
Текст 2
Legal Forms of Business
Having decided to set up your own business, you should choose the legal form
it will take. There are three legal forms to choose from: sole proprietorship,
partnership and corporation (limited company). No one form is better than another.
Each has its advantages and disadvantages. The important thing is to be sure the
chosen form is best for you.
Many businesses are sole proprietorships, which mean that they are owned and
run by one person. Setting up a sole proprietorship is easy; it does not need many
formalities. As a sole trader, a person is fully responsible for the success or failure
of his / her business. Any profits go to the owner; any losses are his or her
responsibility as well. If losses become greater than the investment, the owner is
responsible for paying them, even if this touches all personal assets. This feature is
called unlimited liability.
There is no legal difference between the owner and the business. As the
business is personal to the owner, it is liquidated upon the death of the owner.
Finances for a sole trader are usually limited to his or her own savings or to what
can be borrowed from family or friends. Therefore sole proprietorships are usually
small businesses.
When a proprietor wants to expand a business, one way to do so is to form a
partnership, a business formed for profit by two or more co-owners. The rights and
duties of a partnership are regulated by laws and by a legal agreement made by the
partners. Usually an agreement states how much capital each partner has put up,
how profits will be shared, and how the business will be run between the partners.
All partners are legally responsible for any of the firm's activities, in other
words, each partner has unlimited liability, meaning that all partners are liable for
the debts of the business. They share the risks and the profits or losses associated
with their business.
A way to avoid the risks of unlimited liability is to form a limited partnership.
In a limited partnership there are two kinds of partners – general and limited.
General partners have unlimited liability for the business. The liability of limited
partners is limited to the amounts of their investments.
However, in exchange for this limited liability, limited partners are usually not
allowed to take an active part in the firm's management. There must be at least one
general partner in such kind of partnership.
1. What legal forms of business are described in the text?
2. How many people can own a sole proprietorship?
3. What liability has a sole trader for his / her business?
4. How can a person raise funds for setting up a new business?
5. What kind of business is partnership?
6. What is the liability of partners for running a usual partnership?
7. What kinds of partners are there in a limited partnership?
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Текст 3
Pricing, Promotion, Distribution
Marketing management is an important function of a business. The marketing
manager is responsible for the totality of a company's market offering - the range
of products and their packaging, the prices charged, the discounts offered, the
communications media employed (television, press, personal salesmen, direct mail,
etc.), and the channels through which the product or service is delivered to the
customer (retailers, mail order, automatic vending, etc.). The activity of the
marketing manager determines whether or not the company meets its financial
objectives. The sale of products or services is normally the sole income generator
in a company while most remaining personnel solely incur costs.
Hence, marketing management must maintain continuous contact with those
colleagues in the company who are responsible for manufacturing the products or
providing the service for sale, and with those financial colleagues who are
responsible for controlling budgets, raising capital and distributing profits.
1. What is an important function of a business?
2. What is the range of duties of a marketing manager?
3. What determines the activity of the marketing manager?
4. Why is his/her activity vital for the company's financial standing?
5. What contacts are important for marketing managers?
6. What are financial managers responsible for?
7. Which channels are products or services delivered to the customer through?
IV. Automation of Technological Processes
Автоматизация технологических процессов
Текст 1
The History of the Internet
The 1990s saw great changes in the way people communicate. People could
send mail without going to the post office, and go shopping without leaving home.
Words like e-mail and download became part of people's vocabulary. The cause of
this great change was the Internet.
The idea for the Internet began in the early 1960s in the United States. The
Department of Defense wanted to connect their computers together in order to
share private information. In 1969, the Arpanet (an early form of the Internet) first
connected computers at four American universities. One computer successfully
sent information to another. In 1972, scientists shared Arpanet with the world.
27
They created a way to send person-to-person messages using Arpanet. This was the
beginning of e-mail.
Over the next few years, there was a lot of progress made in the world of
computing, but most people were not using the Internet. Then, in the 1980s,
personal computers became more common. In the early 1990s, two important
things happened: the birth of the World Wide Web in 1991, and the creation of the
first Web browser in 1993. The Web made it easier to find information on the
Internet, and to move from place to place using links. The Web and browser made
it possible to see information as a web site with pictures, sound, and words.
Today, millions of people connect to the Internet to send e-mail, visit web sites,
or store information on servers. Computers are now an important part of our lives
and are changing how we learn, work, shop, and communicate.
1. What was the great change in people’s life?
2. How and where did the idea for the Internet begin?
3. What was an early form of the Internet?
4. What was the beginning of e-mail?
5. When was the birth of the World Wide Web?
6. How do millions of people use the Internet today?
7. How are computers changing our lives?
Текст 2
The Internet
The Internet, a global computer network which embraces millions of users all
over the world, began in the United States in 1969 as a military experiment. It was
designed to survive a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes the
shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two
computers on the Internet will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as
there is a single route between them. This technology is called packet switching.
Owing to this technology, if some computers on the network are knocked out (by a
nuclear explosion, for example), information will just route around them.
The most popular Internet service is e-mail. Most of the people, who have
access to the Internet, use the network only for sending and receiving e-mail
messages.
In many developing countries the Internet may provide businessmen with a reliable
alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunication systems of these
countries. However there are still both commercial and technical problems which
will take time to be resolved.
The most important is security. When you send an e-mail message to
somebody, this message can travel through many different networks and
computers. The data is constantly being directed towards its destination by special
computers called routers. Because of this, it is possible to get into any of
computers along the route, intercept and even change the data being sent over the
Internet.
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1. What is the Internet?
2. Where and when did the Internet begin?
3. What is called packet switching?
4. What is the most popular Internet service?
5. What is the most important problem with Internet?
6. Why is it possible to change the data being sent over the Internet?
7. How can you get into any of computers and change the data?
Текст 3
Going Online
All over the world, people are gaining access to the Internet. More and more
people are using computers to go online. This change has happened quickly. For
example, in 1997, there were fewer than eight million Internet users in Japan. Just
five years later, there were almost 65 million. During that same period, Internet use
around the world grew by 600%. The Internet is affecting many lives, and it is
changing how we communicate. But are these changes good or bad?
The Internet can be a great tool for communication. Everyone agrees on that.
People can use e-mail to keep in touch with family and friends whether they are far
away or just across town. Sending an e-mail message is quick, easy, and cheap.
People can also use the Internet to find new friends. Do you want to talk about
politics or sports or how to find true love? Go online! You will find people who
share your interests. Maybe you will make friends in distant places and learn about
other cultures. In many ways, the Internet can bring people together.
However, some people say that the Internet has the opposite effect. They claim
that it is leading to less communication, not more. These people believe that time
online means time alone. "The Internet is taking people away from their families
and friends," they say. "It draws people away from their communities, and that is
not good."
So, what is actually happening? Researchers are trying to find out. They are
studying the effects of the Internet on our lives. They are looking at the behaviour
of people who use it and people who do not. At this point, there are two basic ideas
about what is happening.
Some researchers who have done studies in the United States have bad news for
people who often go online. They report that people who use the Internet on a
regular basis are more often lonely and unhappy. They say that these people are
spending time at their computers instead of with other people, so they have less
active social lives.
Other researchers disagree. They describe other studies from the United States
and some from England. These show that people who often go online make more
connections with other people because they use the Internet to communicate. And
here is a surprise. According to these studies, frequent Internet users get in touch
more not just online but by phone and in person, too. They have busier social lives,
and they are usually happier. They also watch less TV.
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Does going online affect everyone in the same way? Perhaps not. Perhaps the
effects of Internet use depend on a person's character. Psychologist Robert Kraut
thinks this is so. According to Kraut, the Internet allows social people to become
even, more social. It lets them get in touch with friends more easily, and they go
out more often. And people who are not social? They may use the Internet to avoid
others. They may like going online so that they don't have to talk to anyone.
However, this does not mean that the Internet is unhealthy for shy people. In fact,
the Internet can help shy people make friends. Researchers find that shy people
frequently communicate more easily online than face-to-face.
The Internet is changing how we communicate. Maybe you can see its effects
on your own life. It is less easy to see larger changes in our communities or around
the entire world, but changes are happening. It is something to think about.
1. Why do people use e-mail?
2. How does the Internet bring people together?
3. What the opposite effect does the Internet have?
4. Does going online affect everyone in the same way?
5. Why do shy people frequently communicate more easily online than face-toface?
6. How does the Internet influence your own life?
7. How do you prefer to get in touch with your friends just going online, by phone
or in person?
V. Mechanical Engineering
Строительные и дорожные машины
Текст 1
Components of the Automobile
The automobile consists of three basic parts: the power plant, the chassis and
the body. The power plant or engine is the source of power that makes the car
wheels rotate and the car move. It includes the electric, fuel, cooling and
lubricating systems.
The chassis consists of a power train and a frame with axles, wheels and
springs. The chassis includes the brake system and the steering system as well.
The power train carries the power from the engine to the car wheels. It consists
of the clutch, the gear box, the propeller shaft, the rear axle, and the final drive, etc.
The body has a hood, fenders and accessories: a heater, lights, a radio, a
windshield wiper, a convertible top raiser and so on. The body is designed to
contain and protect not only the engine and other car components, but it provides
protection to the occupants from wind, dust, cold, and rain as well.
To guide the car it is necessary to have some means of turning the front wheels,
so the car can be pointed in the direction required. The steering wheel in front of
the driver is connected by the gears and levels to the front wheels for this purpose.
The front wheels are on the pivots so they can be swung to the left or right.
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The brakes are necessary to slow or stop the car. They are the most important
mechanisms on the car. Upon their proper work the safety and lives of people
riding in the car depend. Most braking systems are hydraulic. But many vehicles
now use power brakes.
The frame is the structural center of some vehicles. It provides support for
engine, body, wheels and power train members. It is usually made of U-shaped
sections. These U-shaped sections are carefully shaped and then welded or riveted
together. Cross members reinforce the frame and also provide support for the
engine and wheels. The frame is extremely rigid and strong. It can withstand the
shock blows, vibrations and other strains to which it is put on the road.
The engine is attached to the frame in three or four points. Noise and some
vibrations are inherent in engine operation. To prevent this noise the engine is
insulated from the frame by some form of a rubber pad at each point of support.
1. What does the automobile consist of?
2. What does the power plant include?
3. What does the chassis consist of?
4. The power train carries the power from the engine to the car wheels, doesn’t it?
5. What is the body designed for?
6. What is it necessary to guide the car?
7. Are the brakes the most important mechanisms on the car?
Текст 2
Components of Tractors
Nowadays tractors are widely used in agriculture and in industry. In agriculture
tractors are used in such jobs as plowing, planting, cultivating, fertilizing,
harvesting, transport works, etc.
In different branches of industry tractors are used as road transport tractors
hauling heavy loads. They are also used for different building purposes.
Tractors may be agricultural tractors, road transport tractors and special tractors.
Agricultural tractors are subdivided into: the general tractors designed for
hauling agricultural machinery; cultivators designed for specific agricultural jobs;
tractors for operation on soft boggy ground.
Road transport tractors are equipped with a load carrying platform.
Special tractors are usually equipped with auxiliary devices. Tractors may belong
either to wheeled-type tractors or to track-laying type tractors.
The construction of a tractor includes the following main units:
1. Power unit which includes the engine with all auxiliary devices – a radiator, a
fan, a starter device, a fuel tank, a pump, etc.
2. Transmission which consists of a clutch, a speed control unit, universal joints,
gearing mechanisms, shafts, steering mechanisms, a final drive, axles.
3. Driver which includes driving, supporting and controlling mechanisms.
4. A steering unit.
5. The tractor frame.
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6. Working and auxiliary equipment.
Tractor engines have internal combustion engines as the source of power.
Tractor engines requirements differ considerably from the requirements of the
automotive engines. Automotive engines are generally unsuitable for tractors.
1. Tractors are widely used in agriculture and in industry, aren’t they?
2. What jobs are tractors used in agriculture for?
3. How may all tractors be classified?
4. What groups are agricultural tractors subdivided into?
5. What are road transport tractors equipped with?
6. What are special tractors usually equipped with?
7. What type may tractors belong to?
Текст 3
Principal Mechanism of Crawler-Mounted Tractors
The various types of tractors in use today have an almost identical transmission
system. They consist of four main groups of mechanisms mounted on the main
frame. They are:
1. The power unit, including the engine and all its accessories.
2. The power train, comprising the engine clutch, the propeller shaft, the
transmission, the center drive, steering clutches with brakes and the final drive.
The power train transmits torque from the engine to tractor tracks.
3. The crawler running gear, including the chain, drive sprockets, the idler, truck
wheels and support rollers and a suspension. The suspension connects the tractor
frame to the running gear.
4. Controls, consisting of the steering clutch, brakes, and mechanisms controlling
fuel feed.
In addition, the tractor carries the hood, the cab and fuel tanks.
Tractors are usually steered by friction clutches mounted on the live axle after the
center drive. These clutches, known as steering clutches, consist of a number of
friction disks.
The weight of the tractor is transmitted to the ground through support rollers
which run on the track. They are connected with the tractor frame by a suspension.
The suspension damps shocks when the tractor moves on uneven ground.
Disconnecting one of the steering clutches, partly or completely, reduces the
speed of rotation of the corresponding sprocket and its track. And the tractor will
turn towards the side of the sprocket lagging behind.
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Small-radius turns cannot be made by slowing down one sprocket using the
steering clutches. Therefore, the tractor controls include a special device for
stopping the free track by means of special brakes, which act upon the driven parts
of the steering clutches.
A tractor going down a slope is braked and stopped by using the same brakes
applied to both tracks simultaneously.
1. What is the main feature of the various types of tractors in use today?
2. What do crawler-mounted tractors consist of?
3. What mechanisms does the power unit include?
4. What mechanisms does the power train comprise?
5. What is the function of the power train?
6. What mechanisms does the crawler running gear include?
7. What do controls consist of?
VI. Heating and Ventilation
Отопление и вентиляция
Текст 1
Air Conditioning
The term air conditioning has been widely and loosely used, it includes any
ventilation system with fan and heater. True air conditioning involves means for
warming and humidifying air in winter and for cooling and dehumidifying in
summer. Air conditioning is finding an ever widening application in industry.
Accurate control of atmospheric conditions is very important for industrial
processes. Air conditioning systems vary in complexity and cost. Complex systems
are finding their application in air conditioning of a multi-storey office block,
factory, cinema or theatre.
For many years air has been introduced into buildings after heating,
dehumidifying and in some cases, cooling it. And we have called that process
ventilation. In recent years much greater stress has been laid on the treatment of air
and we call the process air conditioning. Air conditioning systems are divided into
three types - winter, summer and complete. Winter air conditioning includes
cleaning, heating, humidifying and circulating of air. It is finding its application in
offices, auditoriums, schools and residences. Summer air conditioning includes
cleaning, cooling, dehumidifying and circulating of air. The people are using
summer air conditioning in stores.
Complete air conditioning involves winter and summer functions. It is used in
theatres, large department stores. Each type of air conditioning depends upon the
climatic conditions.
Developments of the last twenty years have changed our conception of air
conditioning. Air conditioning is required for offices, department stores, hospitals,
hotels and dwelling houses. But the techniques of air conditioning have not kept
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pace with the increasing demand. The cost of an air conditioning system influences the
cost of the building, as it needs the additional height and floor areas to mount this air
conditioning system.
Some efforts have been made to reduce the space occupied by air conditioning
systems. But they have not been definitive, except some methods that have been used
for many years. Air conditioning is rapidly being adopted in passenger ships and
automobiles. Car heaters have been employed for some time. But recently new
equipment has been designed to maintain car interiors at a comfortable temperature
in summer and winter.
1. What term includes any ventilation system with fan and heater?
2. Air conditioning systems vary in complexity and cost, don’t they?
3. What has much greater stress been laid on in recent years?
4. Where is air conditioning finding application?
5. What does the cost of an air conditioning system influence?
6. Where is air conditioning being adopted?
7. What has new equipment been designed for?
Текст 2
Systems of Heating
The number of different heating systems is almost unlimited. Various systems of
heating are being used at the present day. They are: direct, indirect, water heating
systems, steam heating systems and so on.
A direct system is that in which the fuel is consumed in the room. It is being used
for intermittent heating, or for heating isolated rooms. An indirect system is that in
which the fuel is consumed outside the room. In this system the heat is being
conveyed to the room by a medium such as steam or hot water. Indirect system is
being used for the continuous heating of a number of rooms or large buildings. It
begins from one central source and that’s why it is named Central Heating.
Steam heating systems are classified according to the following features: piping
arrangement, pressure or vacuum conditions, obtained in operation and method of
returning condensate to the boiler. A steam heating system is known as a one-piping
and two-pipe system. In one-piping system a single main supplies steam to the
heating unit and conveys condensate from it. In two-pipe system each heating unit is
being provided with two piping connections. Steam and condensate flow in separate
branches. Steam heating systems are classified as high pressure, low pressure
(vapour) and vacuum systems. This classification depends on the pressure
conditions under which the system is designed to operate. The system is known as a
gravity return system. Condensate is returned to the boiler by gravity. All heating
units are being elevated above the water line of the boiler.
1. What systems of heating are used at the present day?
2. What heating is the direct system used for?
3. What heating is the indirect system used for?
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4. How are steam heating systems classified?
5. What do you know about one-piping system?
6. What do you know about two-pipe system?
7. What can you say about gravity return system?
Текст 3
Modern Heating and Ventilation
Ventilation means the circulation of air without any treatment. Ventilation is used
where the cost of air conditioning is not justified. Ventilation may be natural or
mechanical. Natural ventilation is due to the action of wind through wall openings
and the updraft caused by the difference in temperature between indoors and
outdoors. The limiting factors in natural ventilation are usually cold weather
conditions and the availability of heat. Buildings with small floor areas are ventilated
by natural means. Natural ventilation has the advantage of being cheap to install.
Mechanical or artificial ventilation is used for theatres, factories, large public halls
and other buildings with large floor areas. Artificial ventilation may be classified
as follows: exhaust ventilation, plenum ventilation and some combination of the
above mentioned systems.
Heating and ventilation may be required to provide comfortable conditions for
people and for industrial processes. Both are necessary and should be considered
together. But the design of each must be treated separately. Heating and ventilation
of buildings by electrical methods are finding their application nowadays. These
methods have the advantage of being quick in construction. They are suitable for
buildings of all sizes and types. Small rooms can be adequately heated with electric
fires. Tubular heaters are used for rooms where the temperature must be
maintained for long periods. These heaters are usually fixed to the walls near the
floor. Not long ago electrically heated panels were developed. On these the heating
elements are mounted behind metal panels. The heating of rooms by means of
large warmed panels is named panel heating or radiant heating.
Electric heaters play a large part in the air conditioning plants of large
buildings. The air enters the building through the ventilation ducts and passes over
electric heaters. They raise the temperature of the passing air and give comfort to
the people.
1. What does term ventilation mean?
2. What can heating and ventilation be required to provide?
3. Must the design of heating and ventilation be treated separately?
4. What methods of heating and ventilation are widespread?
5. What is the advantage of electric methods?
6. What is used to maintain the temperature for long periods?
7. Electric heaters do not play a large part in the air conditioning plants of large
buildings, do they?
VII. Water Supply and Water Disposal
35
Водоснабжение и водоотведение
Текст 1
Purification
The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including
sewage treatment) to households and industry, water purification facility.
In the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local
rivers and streams. The processes generally employed in making water safe for
water supply include coagulation, filtration, and disinfection. Water from some
sources must be treated also for the removal of color, taste, and odor. Coagulation
is commonly effected by adding to the water a salt of aluminum (usually aluminum
sulphate) or ferric iron. A precipitate forms and causes a clumping of the bacteria
and other foreign particles which then settle out during the several hours of
sedimentation. In this way 85% or more of the bacteria and suspended particles can
be removed.
Activated carbon is sometimes added before sedimentation to remove tastes and
odors. In the process of filtration the water is allowed to pass through layers of fine
sand to remove remaining germs and particles. Chlorine is commonly used to
destroy harmful bacteria persisting in a municipal water supply after the other
treatments. Chlorine dioxide has more recently been found effective as a destroyer
of bacteria as well as a means of removing unwanted tastes and odors. Other means
of destroying germs include the use of ozone and of ultraviolet light. Some water
supplies are aerated, i.e., exposed to the action of air and sunlight either through
sprays or by running over coarse gravel; taste and odor are improved and some
germs are destroyed.
1. What does the water industry provide?
2. What do the processes generally employed in making water safe for water
supply include?
3. What must be treated for the removal of color, taste, and odor?
4. Why is activated carbon added before the sedimentation?
5. What has been found effective as a destroyer of bacteria as well as a means of
removing unwanted tastes and odors?
6. What are ozone and ultraviolet light used for?
7. When are taste and odor improved and some germs destroyed?
Текст 2
Water Supply
Water is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all
known forms of life. All known forms of life depend on water. Humans require
water that does not contain too many impurities.
The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems or
as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water
36
to the needy at no charge. Others argue that the market mechanism and free
enterprise are best to manage this rare resource and to finance the boring of wells
or the construction of dams and reservoirs. Water supply facilities include for
example water wells cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply network, water
purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old
aqueducts. Atmospheric water generator is in development. Drinking water is
often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings in the ground, or wells.
Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more
water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources are
rainwater and river or lake water. This surface water, however, must be purified for
human consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances,
dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with
sand which only removes undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill
harmful microbes. Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques
exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundant ocean or seawater is a
more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates.
1. What is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all
known forms of life?
2. How is the distribution of drinking water done?
3. What do water supply facilities include?
4. Building more wells in adequate places is a possible way to produce more water,
isn’t it?
5. What must be purified for human consumption?
6. What does filtering with sand remove?
7. Where is desalination of abundant ocean or seawater used?
Текст 3
Sewerage
The problem of protecting natural water resources has grown very pressing for
many countries since the beginning of the second half of the 20th century. The
development of human society, the growth of civilization and social and technical
progress have resulted in the changing of the composition of natural water
resources. The rivers, lakes and ground-waters contain today the products of
mechanical, chemical and biological pollution.
The waste products that result from the daily activities in a community are of
two general types: the liquid waste, known as sewage and the solid wastes, known
as refuse. The different wastes are the following: the wastes from lavatories, baths,
sinks, and laundry tanks in residences, institutions, and business buildings; wastes
from various types of manufacturing or industrial plants, and the surface run-off
from storms or street-flushing operations.
Sewage may also be divided according to its source into the following three
classes. The sewage from institutions and business buildings is called domestic
sewage, sanitary sewage or house sewage; that resulting from manufacturing or
37
industrial processes is known as industrial waste; and that from run-off during
storms is called storm sewage. A combination of domestic sewage, industrial waste
water is called combined sewage. The removal of all kinds of sewage is usually
accomplished by means of sewers. The sewers are placed in the streets below the
ground surface. The general process of removing sewage is designated as sewerage
and the entire system of sewers including a sewage treatment plant is known as a
sewerage system.
In conclusion it should be stressed that with the growth of population many
modern treatment systems have been built and much more is still to be done in this
field.
1. When has the problem of protecting natural water resources grown?
2. What have resulted in the changing of the composition of natural water
resources?
3. The rivers, lakes and ground waters contain today the products of mechanical,
chemical and biological pollution, don’t they?
4. What waste products do you know?
5. What is called domestic sewage, sanitary sewage or house sewage?
6. What is known as industrial waste?
7. What is called combined sewage?
VIII. Property Examination and Administration
Экспертиза и управление недвижимостью
Building Materials Строительные материалы
Текст 1
Cement
1. Cement is one of the most essential building materials. When it is mixed
with water, cement forms mortar, which hardens, binding various objects, such as
bricks or stones, very firmly. It is for this reason that cement is used widely as a
binding material in large-scale construction. Cements, except white and coloured,
are of grey colour. White or coloured cements can be used where special effects
are required.
2. The raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are: chalk, slate,
limestone and clay. These substances are heated in a slowly rotating kiln. During
the period of their movement through the kiln the clay and the limestone react
chemically and the material emerging from the kiln is cement which is then ground
and mixed with water.
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3. Cement has different properties, most important being the strength of its
production. Shrinkage of cement products also the most important property of
cements as it is the cause of cracking. This depends on the proportion of cement
and the quantity of mixing water. All types of cements shrink during setting and
hardening. It is necessary to distinguish between setting and hardening. The term
“setting” relates to the stiffening of the mix due to chemical processes;
“hardening” is a later and physical-chemical process. Cement starts hardening one
hour after the water has been added and the process of hardening lasts for about
twenty-eight days.
4. Depending on the kind and composition of the raw materials different
types of cement are obtained. The main types of cement are: Ordinary Portland
cement, Rapid Hardening Portland cement, White and Coloured Portland cement,
Portland Blast - furnace cement and High Alumina cement.
5. The process of manufacture of those cements is rather similar. The usual
three stages of producing are: 1. grinding and mixing the raw materials in a form of
wet slurry; 2. burning the mixture to hard clinkers; 3. crushing and grinding the
clinkers to a very fine powder.
1. What material is formed when cement is mixed with water?
2. What is cement used in construction for?
3. What is the colour of cement?
4. What raw materials are used for producing cement?
5. What properties does cement have?
6. What does the kind of cement depend on?
7. What are the main types of cement?
8. How many stages are there in producing cement?
9. What are they?
Текст 2
Concrete
1. Concrete is an artificial stone. It is made by mixing of cement and water
with sand, crushed stone, gravel or other inert material (aggregate). After this
mixture is placed in forms, a chemical action takes place and the mass hardens.
2. It is difficult to imagine modern structure without concrete. The most
important quality of concrete is its property to be formed into large and strong
monolithic units. It should be hard, strong, durable, fire-resistant and economical.
3. Concrete may be divided into two classes: mass or plain concrete and
reinforced concrete (ferro-concrete) where it is necessary to introduce steel. Mass
or plain concrete dates from very early days. It was employed by the Egyptians,
Romans and Greeks in the construction of bridges, roads and town walls. A large
part of the Great Chinese Wall (the third century before our era) was also built of
concrete. As cement was not known in those times, concrete was made of clay.
Mass or plain concrete can be used for almost all building purposes.
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4. The idea of strengthening concrete by a network of small iron rods was
developed in the 19th century. Ferro-concrete is used in building bridges and
arches, dams and dock-walls, for structure under water, for foundations, columns,
girders, beams. The main thing about reinforced concrete is the combination of
compressive strength of concrete with tensile strength of steel. It is a fire-resistant
material and acts as a heat insulator.
5. There is a broad division of concrete types due to aggregates used: a)
dense concretes – composed of heavy aggregates (sand, gravel and crushed stone);
b) light-weight concretes – composed of light aggregates (blast-furnace slag, coke,
breeze, expanded clay, ash). There are “cellular” concretes made by using
materials which form gas during the mixing of the concrete. These give a product
of very light weight.
6. Builders produce prestressed concrete. It is not a new material. In
prestressed concrete steel is not used as reinforcement, but as a means of producing
a suitable compressive stress in the concrete. Therefore any beam made of this
material is devoid of cracks. Prestressed concrete is used for beams, columns,
pipes, storage tanks, etc.
7. Concrete differs not only in its quality but also in the way of working it.
So, there are in-situ (or cast-in-place) concrete which can be made in a building
site or precast concrete which may be used as the material for making prefabricated
units in a factory.
8. Two types of new building materials are produced now: alkali-slag
concrete and silica concrete. In alkali-slag concrete cement is replaced by blastfurnace slag and sodium compounds. It is used for irrigation systems, roads,
pavements. Silica concrete is light, fire-resistant and acid-proof. It contains no
cement whatever. Silica concrete is used in aviation and in under water
construction.
1. What materials are used to produce concrete?
2. What are the properties of concrete?
3. What two classes are concrete divided into?
4. What plain concrete is used for?
5. What is the main thing about reinforced concrete?
6. What kinds of concrete are there due to aggregates used?
7. What is prestressed concrete used for?
8. What new two types of concrete are produced?
Текст 3
Bricks and Building Stones
40
1. A brick is “a building unit”. It can be made of burnt clay, concrete, mortar
and other materials; in shape it is a rectangular solid. Bricks are used as walling
and facing materials.
2. There exist many kinds of bricks used in construction: common bricks,
facing bricks, engineering bricks. They may be used for different purposes.
Common bricks are used for general purposes. They are cheap, and may vary
greatly in strength and durability. Facing bricks are used for facing walls. Their
surfaces sometimes are coloured. They should be durable under severe conditions.
Engineering bricks should be strong, smooth and hard, highly resistant to changing
temperatures. There are hollow bricks and blocks, which are used when it is
required to decrease the weight of construction.
3. Natural stones are also widely used in building. Stone has been used as a
structural material since the earliest days. Almost all famous buildings of classic
times of the medieval and Renaissance periods and of the eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries were erected of stone. The art of making any structure in stone
is called stone masonry.
4. The stones which are used for masonry work are as follows: 1. Granite. It
is very hard, strong and durable. It is used for basement, column, steps and for
facades. Its colour may be grey, yellow, pink and deep red. 2. Sandstone. It is
composed of quartz. It is used for steps, sills, etc. It is an excellent material for
concrete aggregate. 3. Marble. It is a crystalline stone used for decorative purposes.
White and black marbles are used for ornamental decoration.
1. What are the materials for bricks?
2. What is the shape of brick?
3. What are bricks used for?
4. What kinds of bricks are there?
5. What bricks are used for general purposes?
6. What bricks must be durable under severe conditions?
7. What can you say about engineering bricks?
8. What are hollow bricks and blocks used for?
9. What was natural stone used as a structural material for?
10. What is called stone masonry?
11. What is the colour of granite?
12. What stones are used for masonry work?
13. What stone is used for concrete aggregate?
14. What is marble used for?
Текст 4
Timber
1. Timber is the most ancient structural material. It is strong for its weight, it
is easily workable. Timber is highly resistant to corrosive chemical attack. Its
mechanical properties are good. On the other hand, timber has certain
41
disadvantages. First, it burns and is therefore unsuitable for fireproof buildings.
Secondary, it decays.
2. Timber used for building purposes is divided into two groups: softwoods
(conifers) and hardwoods (broad-leaved species). Hardwoods are chiefly used for
decorative purposes, as paneling, veneering in furniture, and some of them are
selected for structural use because of their high strength and durability. Softwoods
are mainly used for joinery.
3. In modern construction timber is often used for window and door frames,
flooring, fences and gates, unpainted internal woodwork. It may be used for
producing different structural elements such as beams, girders, floors.
4. Timber cannot be used immediately it has been felled because of the large
amount of moisture which it contains. It must be removed; otherwise the timber
will swell, causing a tendency to decay. To decrease moisture timber is dried, and
this process of drying timber is called seasoning. There are several methods of
seasoning:
a) “natural seasoning”, when timber is dried under natural atmospheric conditions;
b) “kiln seasoning”, when timber is artificially heated;
c) “chemical seasoning”, when timber is treated by special chemicals. When dried,
timber changes its size and sometimes its form. Elimination of moisture increases
the strength and durability of timber.
1. Is timber a new building material?
2. What are the valuable constructive properties of timber?
3. What disadvantages does timber have?
4. What kinds of timber are used for building purposes?
5. What are hardwoods used for?
6. What are softwoods used for?
7. What structural elements can be produced?
8. How can moisture be removed from timber?
9. What is seasoning?
10. What methods of timber seasoning are there?