* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Words and Sentences
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Germanic weak verb wikipedia , lookup
Zulu grammar wikipedia , lookup
Modern Hebrew grammar wikipedia , lookup
Navajo grammar wikipedia , lookup
Modern Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ojibwe grammar wikipedia , lookup
Sanskrit grammar wikipedia , lookup
Malay grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old Irish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Scottish Gaelic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old Norse morphology wikipedia , lookup
Georgian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Germanic strong verb wikipedia , lookup
Chichewa tenses wikipedia , lookup
French grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ukrainian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Macedonian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Kannada grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old English grammar wikipedia , lookup
Udmurt grammar wikipedia , lookup
Portuguese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Sotho verbs wikipedia , lookup
Turkish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Russian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Lithuanian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Yiddish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Grammatical tense wikipedia , lookup
Swedish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ancient Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Hungarian verbs wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Pipil grammar wikipedia , lookup
Italian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Polish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin conjugation wikipedia , lookup
English clause syntax wikipedia , lookup
Serbo-Croatian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Words and Sentences Language Language: is primarily a means of communicating thoughts from one person to another. Word: a written or spoken symbol which stands for a concept or idea. Sentence: is a combination of words which conveys at least one complete thought consisting of combination of concepts. One usually simply patterns his sentences after those he has read or heard .Something more than imitation is necessary. That understands of sentence structure. Parts of speech: Nouns - Verbs - Pronouns Adjectives - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions Interjections Other English topics: Gerunds and participles Orthography - Punctuation - Syntax - Appositives - The Sentence Subjects and Verbs Subject: is a word (or group of words) which names or indicates a person or thing about which something is said. e.g.) the boy consulted the teacher. The pencil was good. Hunting rabbits is fun. How to find the subject of the verb 1) Form question by who or what before the verb. 2) The answer to the question is the subject of the verb Children play. Who play? Children. The thunder frightens the dog . What frightens ? Thunder الرعد The man was promoted , The book seems long . *** Sometimes the subject is understood rather than expressed . e.g ) Stop . Shut the door . Substantive . . Substantive is : a noun A pronoun , or A word or word–group functioning a noun 1) NOUNS A noun is the name of a person or thing . e.g ) teacher , Asia , desk , reading , happiness . Nouns classification : 1. Common Noun 2. Collective Noun 3. Material Noun 4. Abstract Noun 5. Proper Noun common nouns . child , city , cow , walking , loyalty . proper nouns . George Washington , the UAE … 2 ) PRONOUNS A pronoun is a word which stands for a noun . e.g ) I , YOU , HE , IT , THAT , WHO , WHICH . The classification of Pronouns: 1. Personal Pronoun: 2. Demonstrative Pronoun: 3. Indefinite Pronoun 4. Reflexive Pronoun 5. Reciprocal Pronoun 6. Intensive Pronoun 7. Interrogative Pronoun 8. Indefinite relative Pronoun 9. Relative Pronoun The Classification of Nouns and Pronouns: 1- Person : first person : the person speaking ( I , we ) second person : the person or thing spoken to ( you ) third person : the person or thing spoken of ( he , she , it , they ) 2- Number : A) Singular and Plural Numbers 1) singular 2) plural e.g) girl , ceiling , defeat . e.g ) children , leavers . B) Collective Nouns : A noun which names a group is called a collective noun . e.g ) class , audience , crowd , group , team . * collective nouns can be singular or plural . The team is winning the game ( singular ) . The team are wearing sweaters ( plural ) . If we add ( s) to the collective noun it is no more collective because it refers to more than one group . e.g) classes , teams … 3- GENDER a) Masculine : man , he , bull (person or animal male ) b) Feminine : woman , she , cow . ( person or animal female ) c) Neuter : road , house , it (' it' doesn't have sex ) ( thing ) d) Common : child , person , dog , someone . (person or animal without showing sex of common gender ) Three Types of Nouns and Pronouns 1- personal pronoun . 1st person 2nd person 3rd person singular I You He , she , it Plural We You They 2- Demonstrative pronoun : ( it is always in the third person ) It points one or more persons or things . singular This That Plural these Those e.g ) 1- That is the library . 2- These are expensive . 3- Indefinite pronoun : ( third person ) It refers to one or more persons or things but doesn't definitely point which one or ones are meant . a- singular in pronoun : each , none , some , all , one ( person ) , either , neither , anyone , everyone , someone , anyone , everyone , somebody , nobody , anybody , everybody , something , nothing . b- plural in pronoun : none , some , all, both , few , several , many. e.g) one must be brave . Everybody is present . Several have finished the exam . When measuring quantity ( none , some , all ) are singular . When measuring number (none , some , all ) are plural . e.g ) 1- None ( some , all ) of the soup was left . ( Q) 2- None (some, all) of the marbles were under the bed . ( N) Pronoun Case Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases. 1. Subjective case: pronouns used as subject. 2. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions. 3. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership. Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns as as that show OBJECTS SUBJECTS POSSESSION I me my (mine) you you your (yours) he, she, it him, her, it we they who us them whom his, her (hers), it (its) our (ours) their (theirs) whose The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE, and WHICH do not change form. Some problems of case: 1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want. NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal. (Would you say, "me travel"?) NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and I. (Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?) NOT: Us men like the coach. (Would you say, "us like the coach"?) 2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as: He is taller than I (am tall). This helps you as much as (it helps) me. She is as noisy as I (am). Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun. NOT: He is taller than me. "than me am tall"?). (Would you say, 3. In formal and semiformal writing: Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be. FORMAL: It is I. INFORMAL: It is me. Use whom in the objective case. FORMAL: To whom am I talking? INFORMAL: Who am I talking to? Verb Verb: is a word (or group of words) which says something addition to the subject, indicating action, possession, or state of being. e.g ) The plane flew . (Simple present and simple past) Ali has a car. (Has, have, and had) The man is tall. (Is, are, am, was, were ...) *** A group of words which performs the verb function is called verb phrase. She is hitting the ball. She will hit the ball. ( have , has , is , are , will , would , may , be .. ….. ) Auxiliary or helping verbs A. Prosperities of Verbs 1. Mood 2. Tense 3. Voice 4. Person and Number 1.Mood There are 3 non-finite (i.e. not conjugated) moods and 5 finite moods (i.e. conjugated) in English, which makes a total of 8 moods: Non-finite moods: o Infinitive (to be) o Participle (being) o Gerund (being) Finite moods: o Indicative mood (I am) o Conditional mood (I would be) o Potential mood (I may be) o Subjunctive mood (I be) o Imperative mood (be!) In this chapter we are going to discuss only these moods: 1. Indicative mood (I am) example: The child lost the toy. 2. Subjunctive mood (I be) example: If I were you, I would go. 3. Imperative mood (be!) example: Stop! ; Shut the door. 2.Tense There are 12 tenses: Simple present (I am) Present progressive or Present continuous (I am being) Present perfect (I have been) Present perfect progressive or present perfect continuous (I have been being) Simple past (I was) Past progressive or Past continuous (I was being) Past perfect or pluperfect (I had been) Past perfect progressive, pluperfect progressive, past perfect continuous or pluperfect continuous (I had been being) Simple future (I shall be) Future progressive or Future continuous (I shall be being) Future perfect (I shall have been) Future perfect progressive or Future perfect continuous (I shall have been being) All non-auxiliaries exhibit two more tenses: Intensive present (I do play) Intensive past (I did play) 3.Voice There are 2 voices: Active voice (I play) Passive voice (I am played) Verbs can be Passive or Active. An Active verb is a verb in an active sentence, in which the subject performs the verb. An example of an active verb in an active sentence is 'I hit the dog.' A Passive verb is a verb in a passive sentence. In a passive sentence, the action is performed upon the subject. An example of this is: 'The dog was hit by me.'. The two sentences have the same denotative meaning, but their connotative meaning is quite different; active verbs are much more powerful and personal. There are two forms of passive voice: "He gave me the book." => "The book was given to me." or "I was given the book." The second form is preferred. English, like many Germanic languages, contains both strong (or irregular; they aren't quite the same thing) and weak (regular) verbs. Irregular verbs are one of the most difficult aspects of learning English. Each irregular verb must be memorized, because they are not often easy to identify otherwise. Verbs are divided again, with respect to their signification, into four classes; active-transitive, activeintransitive, passive, and neuter. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object; as, "Cain slew Abel." "Cassius loved Brutus." An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object; as, "John walks." "Jesus wept." A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon; as, "I am compelled." "Caesar was slain." A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being; as, "There was light." "The babe sleeps." Verbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, Moods, Tenses, Persons and Numbers. There are five moods; the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number: as, "To die,--to sleep;--To sleep!--perchance, to dream!" (from Hamlet by William Shakespeare) The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing: as, I write you know or asks a question; as, Do you know? Know ye not? The Potential mood is that form of the verb which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion: as, I can walk. He may ride. We must go. The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, and contingent: as, "If thou go, see that thou offend not." "See thou do it not."--Rev., xix, 10. God save the queen. It is a requirement that ... be done. It's high time you were in bed. If I were you,... The Imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting: as, "Depart thou." "Be comforted." "Forgive me." "Go in peace." 4. Number and person There are 2 grammatical numbers and 3 grammatical persons: First person singular: I Second person singular: you or thou Third person singular: he, she, it or a singular noun First person plural: we Second person plural: you Third person plural: they or a plural noun The person and number of a verb are those modifications in which it agrees with its subject or nominative. In each number, there are three persons; and in each person, two numbers: thus, Singular. 1st per. I love, 3d per. He loves; Plural. 1. We love, 2. You love, 3. They love. Definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place. Where the verb is varied, the third person singular is regularly formed by adding s or es: as, I see, he sees; I give, he gives; I go, he goes; I fly, he flies; I vex, he vexes; I lose, he loses. Where the verb is not varied to denote its person and number, these properties are inferred from its subject or nominative: as, If I love, if he love; if we love, if you love, if they love. Classification of Verbs 1. Transitive 2. Intransitive 3. Linking Tenses Tenses Structure Simple present S+v1+obj Simple past Simple future Present perfect S+v2+obj S+will+v1+obj S+ has /have + p.p + obj S+ had+p.p+obj S+will have+p.p+obj S+is/are/am+(v+in g)+obj S+was/were+(v+in g)+obj S+will be+(v+ing ) +obj S+has/have+been +(v+ing) S+ had been+(v+ing) S+will have Past perfect Future perfect Present progressive Past progressive Future progressive Present perfect progressive Past perfect progressive future perfect مفرد جم ع does Do did will has Ha ve Had Will have Is are am –i was W ere Will be has ha ve had will have emphatic s+do/does+v1 +obj s+did+v1+obj progressive been+( v+ing) been Note : he , she , it = مفرد We , they , you = جمع Note : Do – I Was – I Have – I Am - I Note : emphatic يأتي مع المضارع البسيط و الماضي البسيط فقط S+ do/does+v1+obj المضارع البسيطe.g) 1- I do come early . 2- she does speak English S+Did+v1+obj الماضي البسيط e.g ) 1- they did study hard . Note : Do /does / did / will + v1 Have /has / had + p.p Is/ are / am / was / were + ( v+ ing ) Is , are , am + v + ing مضارع مستمر Was , were + v + ing ماضي مستمر Do , does + v1 مضارع بسيط Did + v1 ماضي بسيط Do : they , we , you , I Does : he , she , it A regular English verb has only one principal part, the infinitive or dictionary form (which is identical to the simple present tense for all persons and numbers except the third person singular). All other forms of a regular verb can be derived straightforwardly from the infinitive, for a total of four forms (e.g. exist, exists, existed, existing) English irregular verbs (except to be) have at most three principal parts: Part Example: 1 infinitive write 2 Past wrote 3 past participle written Strong verbs like write have all three distinct parts, for a total of five forms (e. g. write, writes, wrote, written, writing). The more irregular weak verbs also require up to three forms to be learned. The highly irregular copular verb to be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been, of which only one is derivable from a principal part (being is derived from be). On the history of this verb, see Indo-European copula. Verbs had more forms when the pronoun thou was still in regular use and there was a number distinction in the second person. To be, for instance, had art, wast and wert. Most of the strong verbs that survive in modern English are considered irregular. Irregular verbs in English come from several historical sources; some are technically strong verbs (i. e. their forms display specific vowel changes of the type known as ablaut in linguistics); others have had various phonetic changes or contractions added to them over the history of English. Infinitive and basic form Formation The infinitive in English is the naked root form of the word. When it is being used as a verbal noun, the particle to is usually prefixed to it. When the infinitive stands as the predicate of an auxiliary verb, to may be omitted, depending on the requirements of the idiom. Uses The infinitive, in English, is one of two verbal nouns: To write is to learn. The infinitive, either marked with to or unmarked, is used as the complement of many auxiliary verbs: I will write a novel about talking beavers; I am really going to write it. The basic form also forms the English imperative mood: Write these words! The basic form makes the English subjunctive mood: If you write it, they will read. Third person singular Formation The third person singular in regular verbs in English is distinguished by the suffix -s. In English spelling, this -s is added to the stem of the infinitive form: run → runs. If the base ends in a sibilant sound like /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/ (see IPA) that is not followed by a silent E, the suffix is written -es: buzz → buzzes; catch → catches. If the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to an i and -es is affixed to the end: cry → cries. Verbs ending in o typically add -es: veto → vetoes. The third person singular present indicative in English is notable cross-linguistically for being a morphologically marked form for a semantically unmarked one. That is to say the the third person singular is usually taken to be the most basic form in a given verbal category and as such, according to markedness theory, should have the simplest of forms in its paradigm. This is clearly not the case with English where the other persons exhibit the bare root and nothing more. In Early Modern English, some dialects distinguished the third person singular with the suffix -th; after consonants this was written -eth, and some consonants were doubled when this was added: run → runneth. Use The third person singular is used exclusively in the third person form of the English simple "present tense", which often has other uses besides the simple present: He writes airport novels about anthropomorphic rodents. Exception English preserves a number of past -present verbs, such as can and may. These verbs lack a separate form for the third person singular: she can, she may. All surviving preterits-present verbs in modern English are auxiliary verbs. The verb will, although historically not a preterits-present verb, has come to be inflected like one when used as an auxiliary; it adds -s in the third person singular only when it is a full verb: Whatever she wills to happen will make life annoying for everyone else. Present participle Formation The present participle is made by the suffix -ing: go → going. If the base ends in silent e, it is dropped before adding the suffix: believe → believing. If the e is not silent, it is retained: agree → agreeing. If the base ends in -ie, change the ie to y and add -ing: lie → lying. If: the base form ends in a single consonant; and a single vowel precedes that consonant; and the last syllable of the base form is stressed then the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix: set → setting; occur → occurring. In British English, as an exception, the final <l> is subject to doubling even when the last syllable is not stressed: yodel → yodelling, travel → travelling; in American English, these follow the rule: yodeling, traveling. Irregular forms include: singeing, where the e is (sometimes) not dropped to avoid confusion with singing; ageing, in British English, where the expected form aging is ambiguous as to whether it has a hard or soft g; words ending in -c, which add k before the -ing, for example, trafficking, panicking, frolicking, and bivouacking. a number of words that are subject to the doubling rule even though they do not fall squarely within its terms, such as diagramming, kidnapping, programming, and worshipping. Uses The present participle is another English verbal noun: Writing is learning (see gerund for this sense). It is used as an adjective: a writing desk; building beavers. It is used to form a past, present or future tense with progressive or imperfective force: He is writing another long book about beavers. It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: He tried writing about opossums instead, but his muse deserted him. Preterite Formation In weak verbs, the preterite is formed with the suffix -ed: work → worked. If the base ends in e, -d is simply added to it: hone → honed; dye > dyed. Where the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to i before the -ed is added; deny → denied. Where the base ends in a vowel plus y, the y is retained: alloy → alloyed. The rule for doubling the final consonant in regular weak verbs for the preterite is the same as the rule for doubling in the present participle; see above. Many strong verbs and other irregular verbs form the preterite differently, for which see that article. Use The preterite is used for the English simple (non-iterative or progressive) past tense. He wrote two more chapters about the dam at Kashawigamog Lake. Past participle Formation In regular weak verbs, the past participle is always the same as the preterite. Irregular verbs may have separate preterites and past participles; Uses The past participle is used with the auxiliary have for the English perfect tenses: They have written about the slap of tails on water, about the scent of the lodge... (With verbs of motion, an archaic form with be may be found in older texts: he is come.) With be, it forms the passive voice: It is written so well, you can feel what it's like to gnaw down trees! It is used as an adjective: the written word; a broken dam. It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: 500,000 words got written in record time. Tenses of the English verb English verbs, like those in many other western European languages, have more tenses than forms; tenses beyond the ones possible with the five forms listed above are formed with auxiliary verbs, as are the passive voice forms of these verbs. Important auxiliary verbs in English include will, used to form the future tense; shall, formerly used mainly for the future tense, but now used mainly for commands and directives; be, have, and do, which are used to form the supplementary tenses of the English verb, to add aspect to the actions they describe, or for negation. English verbs display complex forms of negation. While simple negation was used well into the period of early Modern English (Touch not the royal person!) in contemporary English negation almost always requires that the negative particle be attached to an auxiliary verb such as do or be. I go not is archaic; I don't go or I am not going are what the contemporary idiom requires. English exhibits similar idiomatic complexity with the interrogative mood, which in Indo-European languages is not, strictly speaking, a mood. Like many other Western European languages, English historically allowed questions to be asked by inverting the position of verb and subject: Whither goest thou? Now, in English, questions are often trickily idiomatic, and require the use of auxiliary verbs, though occasionally, the interrogative mood is still used in Modern English. Overview of tenses In English grammar, tense refers to any conjugated form expressing time, aspect or mood. The large number of different composite verb forms means that English has the richest and subtlest system of tense and aspect of any Germanic language. This can be confusing for foreign learners; however, the English verb is in fact very systematic once one understands that in each of the three time spheres - past, present and future English has a basic tense which can then be made either perfect or progressive (continuous) or both. Simple Progressive Perfect Perfect progressive Future I will write I will be writing I will have written I will have been writing Present I write I am writing I have written I have been writing Past I was writing I had written I had been writing I wrote Because of the neatness of this system, modern textbooks on English generally use the terminology in this table. What was traditionally called the "perfect" is here called "present perfect" and the "pluperfect" becomes "past perfect", in order to show the relationships of the perfect forms to their respective simple forms. Whereas in other Germanic languages, or in Old English, the "perfect" is just a past tense, the English "present perfect" has a present reference; it is both a past tense and a present tense, describing the connection between a past event and a present state. However, historical linguists sometimes prefer terminology which applies to all Germanic languages and is more helpful for comparative purposes; when describing wrote as a historical form, for example, we would say "preterite" rather than "past simple". This table, of course, omits a number of forms which can be regarded as additional to the basic system: the intensive present I do write the intensive past I did write the habitual past I used to write the "shall future" I shall write the "going-to future" I am going to write the "future in the past" I was going to write the conditional I would write the perfect conditional I would have written the (increasingly seldom used) subjunctives, if I be, if I were. Some systems of English grammar eliminate the future tense altogether, treating will/would simply as modal verbs, in the same category as other modal verbs such as can/could and may/might. See Grammatical tense for a more technical discussion of this subject. A full inventory of verb forms follows. Present simple Or simple present. Affirmative: I write; He writes Negative: He does not (doesn't) write Interrogative: Does he write? Negative interrogative: Does he not write? (Doesn't he write?) Note that the "simple present" in idiomatic English often identifies habitual or customary action: He writes about beavers (understanding that he does so all the time.) It is used with stative verbs: She thinks beavers are remarkable It can also have a future meaning (though much less commonly than in many other languages): She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesday. Put Tuesday in the plural, and She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesdays means that she goes to Milwaukee every Tuesday. The present simple has an intensive or emphatic form with "do": He does write. In the negative and interrogative forms, of course, this is identical to the non-emphatic forms. It is typically used as a response to the question Does he write, whether that question is expressed or implied, and says that indeed, he does write. The idiomatic use of the negative particles not and -n't in the interrogative form is also worth noting. In formal literary English of the sort in which contractions are avoided, not attaches itself to the main verb: Does he not write? When the colloquial contraction -n't is used, this attaches itself to the auxiliary do: Doesn't he write? This in fact is a contraction of a more archaic word order, still occasionally found in poetry: *Does not he write? Past simple Or preterite. Affirmative: He wrote Negative: He did not write Interrogative: Did he write? Negative interrogative: Did he not write? (Didn't he write?) The same change of word order in the negative interrogative that distinguishes the formal and informal register also applies to the preterite. Note also that the preterite form is also used only in the affirmative. When the sentence is recast as a negative or interrogative, he wrote not and wrote he? are archaic and not used in modern English. They must instead be supplied by periphrastic forms. This tense is used for a single event in the past, sometimes for past habitual action, and in chronological narration. Like the present simple, it has emphatic forms with "do": he did write. Although it is sometimes taught that the difference between the present perfect and the simple past is that the perfect denotes a completed action whereas the past denotes an incomplete action, this theory is clearly false. Both forms are normally used for completed actions. (Indeed the English preterite comes from the Proto-Indo-European perfect.) And either can be used for incomplete actions. The real distinction is that the present perfect is used when the time frame either is the present or includes the present, whereas the simple past is used when the time frame is in the absolute past. The "used to" past tense for habitual actions is probably best included under the bracket of the past simple. Compare: When I was young I played football every Saturday. When I was young I used to play football every Saturday. The difference is slight, but "used to" stresses the regularity, and the fact that the action has been discontinued. Future simple Affirmative: He will write Negative: He will not / won't write Interrogative: Will he write? Negative interrogative: Will he not write? (Won't he write?) See the article Shall and Will for a discussion of the two auxiliary verbs used to form the simple future in English. There is also a future with "go" which is used especially for intended actions, and for the weather, and generally is more common in colloquial speech: I'm going to write a book some day. I think it's going to rain. But the will future is preferred for spontaneous decisions: Jack: "I think we should have a barbecue!" Jill: "Good idea! I'll go get the coal. Present perfect Traditionally just called the perfect. Affirmative: He has written Negative: He has not written Interrogative: Has he written? Negative interrogative: Has he not written? (Hasn't he written?) This indicates that a past event has one of a range of possible relationships to the present. This may be a focus on present result: He has written a very fine book (and look, here it is, we have it now). Or it may indicate a time-frame which includes the present. I have lived here since my youth (and I still do). Compare: Have you written a letter this morning? (it is still morning) with Did you write a letter this morning? (it is now afternoon). The perfect tenses are frequently used with the adverbs already or recently or with since clauses. Although the label “perfect tense” implies a completed action, the present perfect can identify habitual (I have written letters since I was ten years old.) or continuous (I have lived here for fifteen years.) action. In addition to these normal uses where the time frame either is the present or includes the present, the “have done” construct is used in temporal clauses to define a future time: When you have written it, show it to me. It also forms a past infinitive, used when infinitive constructions require a past perspective: Mozart is said to have written his first symphony at the age of eight. (Notice that if not for the need of an infinitive, the simple past would have been used here: He wrote it at age eight.) The past infinitive is also used in the conditional perfect. Past perfect Or the "pluperfect" Affirmative: He had written Negative: He had not / hadn't written Interrogative: Had he written? Negative interrogative: Had he not written? (Hadn't he written?) Future perfect Affirmative: He will have written Negative: He will not / won't have written Interrogative: Will he have written? Negative interrogative: Will he not have written? (Won't he have written?) Used for something which will be completed by a certain time (perfect in the literal sense) or which leads up to a point in the future which is being focused on. I will have finished my essay by Thursday. By then she will have been there for three weeks. Present progressive Or present continuous. Affirmative: He is writing Negative: He is not writing Interrogative: Is he writing? Negative interrogative: Is he not writing? (Isn't he writing?) This form describes the simple engagement in a present activity, with the focus on action in progress "at this very moment". It too can indicate a future, particularly when discussing plans already in place: I am flying to Paris tomorrow. Used with "always" it suggests irritation; compare He always does that (neutral) with He's always doing that. Word order differs here in the negative interrogative between the hyper formal is he not writing and the usual isn't he writing? Past continuous Or imperfect or past progressive. Affirmative: He was writing Negative: He was not writing Interrogative: Was he writing? Negative interrogative: Was he not writing? (Wasn't he writing?) This is typically used for two events in parallel: While I was washing the dishes my wife was walking the dog. Or for an interrupted action (the past simple being used for the interruption): While I was washing the dishes I heard a loud noise. Or when we are focusing on a point in the middle of a longer action: At three o'clock yesterday I was working in the garden. (Contrast: I worked in the garden all day yesterday.) Future progressive Affirmative: He will be writing Negative: He will not / won't be writing Interrogative: Will he be writing? Negative interrogative: Will he not be writing? (Won't he be writing?) Used especially to indicate that an event will be in progress at a particular point in the future: This time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test. Present perfect progressive Or continuous. Affirmative: He has been writing Negative: He has not been writing Interrogative: Has he been writing? Negative interrogative: Has he not been writing? (Hasn't he been writing?) Used for unbroken action in the past which continues right up to the present. I have been writing this paper all morning (and still am). Past perfect progressive Or "pluperfect progressive" or "continuous" Affirmative: He had been writing Negative: He had not been / hadn't been writing Interrogative: Had he been writing? Negative interrogative: Had he not been writing? (Hadn't he been writing?) Relates to the past perfect much as the present perfect progressive relates to the present perfect, but tends to be used with less precision. " Future perfect progressive Or future perfect continuous. Affirmative: He will have been writing Negative: He will not / won't have been writing Interrogative: Will he have been writing? Negative interrogative: Will he not have been writing? (Won't he have been writing?) Conditional Or past subjunctive. Affirmative: He would write Negative: He would not / wouldn't write Interrogative: Would he write? Negative interrogative: Would he not write? (Wouldn't he write?) Used principally in a main clause accompanied by an implicit or explicit doubt or "ifclause"; may refer to conditional statements in present or future time: I would like to pay now if it's not too much trouble. (in present time; doubt of possibility is explicit) I would like to pay now. (in present time; doubt is implicit) I would do it if she asked me to. (in future time; doubt is explicit) I would do it. (in future time; doubt is implicit) (A very common error by foreign learners is to put the would into the if-clause itself. A humorous formulation of the rule for the EFL classroom runs: "If and would you never should, if and will makes teacher ill!" But of course, both will and would CAN occur in an if-clause when expressing volition. A student of English may rarely encounter the incorrect construction as it can occur as an archaic form.) Voice of speech can be active or passive. Principally in passive voice the same tenses can be used as in active voice. He gave me the book. The book was given to me. I was given the book. There are however some things to note. They build a house. The house is built. Here active and passive do not really represent the same tense. If for example you describe a picture where people build a house, the first sentence is perfectly correct. The second sentence however will be interpreted as the static perfect of the sentence The house has been built - it is built now. This is, the house is now ready and not under construction. So the correct passive form is The house is being built. Passive voice can be built quite formally by adhering to some rules. You will however not find normally all tenses as in active voice. Formal rules will lead you to monstrosities like the following, you will certainly never hear (already the active sentence is quite monstrous): The speech will have been being held for four hours when finally you'll arrive. (The president will have been holding a speech for four hours when There are 2 voices: Active voice (I play) Passive voice (I am played) The conjugation of verbs The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. There are four PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of every simple and complete verb; namely, the Present, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Participle. A verb which wants any of these parts, is called defective; such are most of the auxiliaries. An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, with their variations. To do. Present tense; and sign of the indicative present. Sing. I do, he does; Plur. We do, you do, they do. Imperfect tense; and sign of the indicative imperfect. Sing. I did, he did; Plur. We did, you did, they did. To be. Present tense; and sign of the indicative present. Sing. I am, he is; Plur. We are, you are, they are. Imperfect tense; and sign of the indicative imperfect. Sing. I was, he was; Plur. We were, you were; they were. To have. Present tense; but sign of the indicative perfect. Sing. I have, he has; Plur. We have, you have, they have. Imperfect tense; but sign of the indicative pluperfect. Sing. I had, he had; Plur. We had, you had, they had. Shall and will. Often confused with each other in modern English. These auxiliaries have distinct meanings, and, as signs of the future, they are interchanged thus: Present tense; but sign of the indicative first-future. Simply to express a future action or event:-Sing. I shall, he will; Plur. We shall, you will, they will. To express a promise, command, or threat:-Sing. I will, he shall; Plur. We will, you shall, they shall. Imperfect tense; but, as signs, aorist, or indefinite. Used with reference to duty or expediency:-Sing. I should, he should; Plur. We should, you should, they should. Used with reference to volition or desire:-Sing. I would, he would; Plur. We would, you would, they would. See also: Shall and will by Wikipedia May. Present tense; and sign of the potential present. Sing. I may, he may; Plur. We may, you may, they may. Imperfect tense; and sign of the potential imperfect. Sing. I might, he might; Plur. We might, you might, they might. Can. Present tense; and sign of the potential present. Sing. I can, he can; Plur. We can, you can, they can. Imperfect tense; and sign of the potential imperfect. Sing. I could, he could; Plur. We could, you could, they could. Must. Present tense; and sign of the potential present. Sing. I must, he must; Plur. We must, you must, they must. If must is ever used in the sense of the Imperfect tense, or Preterit, the form is the same as that of the Present: this word is entirely invariable. Verb may be conjugated in four ways. Affirmatively; as, I write, I do write, or, I am writing; and so on. Negatively; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing. Interrogatively; as, Write I? Do I write? or, Am I writing? Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I not? Do I not write? or, Am I not writing? Simple form, active or neuter. The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the indicative. Active conjugation Weak verbs (to play) Nonfinite forms to play (present simple), to be playing (present simple Infinitiv progressive), to have played (present perfect), to have es been playing (present perfect progressive) playing (present), being playing (present simple Participl progressive), having played (present perfect), having es been playing (present perfect progressive) playing (present), being playing (present simple Gerunds progressive), having played (present perfect), having been playing (present perfect progressive) Indicati I ve simple present play intensive do present play you play do play thou he, we she, it you they playest plays (playet play h) play play doest play does play do (doeth play play) do play do play simple am are present art playin playin progress playing g g ive simple past is are are are playin playin playin playin g g g g playe playe playe playe playe playedst played d d d d d intensive did past play did play didst play simple was were past wert playin playin progress playing g g ive simple future present perfect progress ive did play did play did play was were were were playin playin playin playin g g g g shall/ shall/ shall/ shall/ shall/ shall/ shalt/wilt will will will will will will play play play play play play play shall/ simple will future be progress playin ive g present perfect did play shall/ shall/ will shalt/wilt will be be be playin playin playing g g shall/ will be playin g shall/ will be playin g shall/ will be playin g have have hast playe playe played d d has played have have have (havet playe playe playe h d d d played ) have been playin g have been playin g (havet h been playin have hast been been playin playing g have been playin g have been playin g have been playin g g) past had had perfect hadst playe playe (pluperf played d d ect) had had had had playe playe playe played d d d past perfect (pluperf ect) progress ive had been playin g had hadst been been playin playing g had been playin g had been playin g had been playin g had been playin g future perfect shall/ will have playe d shall/ shall/ will shalt/wilt will have have have playe played played d shall/ will have playe d shall/ will have playe d shall/ will have playe d shall/ future will perfect have progress been ive playin g shall/ will have been playin g shall/ shalt/wilt will have have been been playing playin g shall/ will have been playin g shall/ will have been playin g shall/ will have been playin g Conditi I onal you thou you they simple present would would wouldst play play play he, we she, it would would would would play play play play simple present progress ive would be playin g would wouldst be be playin playing g would be playin g would be playin g would be playin g would be playin g present perfect would have playe d would wouldst have have playe played d would would have have playe played d would have playe d would have playe d would present have perfect been progress playin ive g would have been playin g wouldst have been playing would have been playin g would have been playin g would have been playin g Potentia I l you thou he, we she, it you they simple present may play may play mayest play may play may play may play may play simple present progress ive may be playin g may mayest be be playin playing g may be playin g may be playin g may be playin g may be playin g simple past might might mightst play play play might might might might play play play play simple past might might mightst be be be might might might might be be be be would have been playin g progress playin playin playing ive g g may mayest have have playe played d may may have have playe played d may have playe d may have playe d may present have perfect been progress playin ive g may have been playin g may have been playin g may have been playin g may have been playin g may have been playin g past perfect (pluperf ect) might have playe d might mightst have have playe played d might might have have playe played d might have playe d might have playe d past perfect (pluperf ect) progress ive might have been playin g might have been playin g might have been playing might have been playin g might have been playin g might have been playin g Subjunc I tive you thou he, we she, it you they simple present play play play play play present perfect may have playe d playin playin playin playin g g g g play mayest have been playing might have been playin g play simple be be present playin playin progress g g ive simple past be be be be be playing/ playin playin playin playin beest g g g g playing playe playe played d d simple were were past were playin playin progress playing g g ive played playe playe playe d d d were were were were playin playin playin playin g g g g simple future shoul shoul shouldst should shoul shoul shoul d play d play play play d play d play d play simple future progress ive shoul d be playin g present perfect have have have playe playe played d d have have have have playe playe playe played d d d present perfect progress ive have been playin g have been playin g have been playin g past perfect had had had playe playe had had had had playe playe playe shoul should shouldst d be be be playin playin playing g g have have been been playin playing g shoul d be playin g shoul d be playin g have been playin g shoul d be playin g have been playin g (pluperf d ect) d played played d d d had been playin g had been playin g had been playin g had been playin g past perfect (pluperf ect) progress ive) had been playin g had been had been playin playing g future perfect shoul d have playe d shoul d shouldst should have have have playe played played d shoul d have playe d shoul d have playe d shoul d have playe d shoul future d perfect have progress been ive playin g shoul d have been playin g should shouldst have have been been playin playing g shoul d have been playin g shoul d have been playin g shoul d have been playin g Imperat I ive you thou he, we she, it you they let them play do let them simple present let me play play play let him/he let ' s play r/it play play simple present do let do me do play do let do let do him/he us (with to play do) play r/it play play play play simple present progress ive let me be be be playin playin playing g g let him/he r/it be playin g let let ' s be them be playin be playin g playin g g simple present progress ive (with to do) do let do be me be do be playin playin playing g g do let him/he r/it be playin g do let do let do be them us be playin be playin g playin g g present perfect let me have have have playe playe played d d let him/he r/it have played let let ' s have them have playe have playe d playe d d do have do have playe played d do let him/he r/it have played do let us have playe d do let do them have have playe playe d d have have been been playin playing g let him/he r/it have been playin let ' s have been playin g let have them been have playin been g playin g do let present me perfect have (with to playe do) d let me present have perfect been progress playin ive g g do let present me perfect have progress been ive (with playin to do) g do have do have been been playin playing g do let him/he r/it have been playin g do let us have been playin g do have been playin g do let them have been playin g Auxiliaries To do The verb to do is used to form the active indicative intensive present, the active indicative intensive past and the imperative mood, except for the modal verbs and the verb to be which do not possess such forms The verb to do is used to form the negative and question form of the active indicative simple present, the active indicative simple past and the imperative mood, except for the modal verbs and the verb to be which do not possess such forms The forms do not and does not can be shortened to don't and doesn't Nonfinite forms Infinitives to do (present simple), to be doing (present simple progressive), to have done (present perfect), to have been doing (present perfect progressive) doing(present), being doing (present simple progressive), Participles having done (present perfect), having been doing (present perfect progressive) Gerunds doing (present), being doing (present simple progressive), having done (present perfect), having been doing (present perfect progressive) Indicativ I e you thou he, she, we it you they simple present do doest does do (doeth) do do do do do do does do doest do (doeth do do do) do do do do simple present am progressiv doing e are doing art doing is doing are doing are doing are doing simple past did did didst did did did did intensive past did do did do didst do did do did do did do did do was doing were doing intensive present do simple was past doing progressiv were doing wert doing were doing were doing e simple future shall/w shall/w shalt/wilt shall/wi shall/w shall/w shall/w ill do ill do do ll do ill do ill do ill do simple shall/w shall/w shall/wi shall/w shall/w shall/w future shalt/wilt ill be ill be ll be ill be ill be ill be progressiv be doing doing doing doing doing doing doing e present perfect have done hast done have done have done have been doing have been have hast been doing been doing (haveth doing been doing) present have perfect been progressiv doing e have been doing have been doing past perfect had (pluperfec done t) had done hadst done had done had done had done had done past perfect had (pluperfec been t) doing progressiv e had been doing hadst been doing had been doing had been doing had been doing had been doing future have done has done have (haveth done done) shall/w shall/w shalt/wilt shall/wi shall/w shall/w shall/w ill have ill have have ll have ill have ill have ill have perfect done done done done done done done future perfect progressiv e shall/w ill have been doing shall/w ill have been doing shalt/wilt have been doing shall/wi ll have been doing shall/w ill have been doing shall/w ill have been doing shall/w ill have been doing Conditio I nal you thou he, she, we it you they simple present would do would do wouldst do would do would do would do would do simple would present be progressiv doing e would be doing would wouldst be be doing doing would be doing would be doing would be doing present perfect would have done would have done wouldst have done would have done would have done would have done would have done present perfect progressiv e would have been doing would have been doing wouldst have been doing would have been doing would have been doing would have been doing would have been doing you thou he, she, we it you they Potential I simple present may do may do mayest do may do may do may do may do simple may be may be mayest may be may be may be may be present doing progressiv e doing be doing doing doing doing doing simple past might do might do mightst do might do might do might do might do simple might past be progressiv doing e might be doing might mightst be be doing doing might be doing might be doing might be doing present perfect may have done may have done mayest have done may have done may have done may have done may have done present perfect progressiv e may have been doing may have been doing mayest have been doing may have been doing may have been doing may have been doing may have been doing past might perfect have (pluperfec done t) might have done mightst have done might have done might have done might have done might have done past perfect (pluperfec t) progressiv e might have been doing mightst have been doing might have been doing might have been doing might have been doing might have been doing you thou he, she, we it you they might have been doing Subjuncti I ve simple present do do do simple present be progressiv doing e be doing simple past did simple past were progressiv doing e simple future do do do do be be doing/be doing est doing be doing be doing be doing did did did did did did were doing were doing were doing were doing were doing were doing should should shouldst should do do do do should should should do do do simple should should should future shouldst be be be progressiv be doing doing doing doing e should should should be be be doing doing doing present perfect have done present have perfect been progressiv doing e past perfect had done have done have done have done have done have done have done have been doing have been doing have been doing have been doing have been doing have been doing had done had done had done had done had done had done (pluperfec t) past perfect had (pluperfec been t) doing progressiv e had been doing had had been been doing doing had been doing had been doing had been doing future perfect should should shouldst should have have have have done done done done should should should have have have done done done future perfect progressiv e should have been doing should have been doing Imperati I ve simple present let me do simple present (with to do) do let me do simple let me present be progressiv doing e should have been doing shouldst have been doing should have been doing you thou he, she, we it do let let ' s him/her do /it do do do do do let do let him/her us do /it do be doing let let ' s him/her be doing be /it be doing doing do should have been doing should have been doing you they do let them do do do do let them do be doing let them be doing simple present do let progressiv me be e (with to doing do) do be doing present perfect let me have done have done present perfect (with to do) do let me have done do have done present perfect progressiv e let me have been doing have been doing present perfect progressiv e (with to do) do let me have been doing do have been doing do be doing do let do let him/her us be /it be doing doing do be doing do let them be doing have done let let ' s him/her have /it have done done have done let them have done do have done do let do let do him/her us have have /it have done done done do let them have done have been doing let him/her /it have been doing let ' s have been doing have been doing let them have been doing do have been doing do let him/her /it have been doing do let us have been doing do have been doing do let them have been doing