Download Words and Sentences

Words and Sentences
Language
Language: is primarily a means of communicating
thoughts from one person to another.
Word: a written or spoken symbol which stands for a
concept or idea.
Sentence: is a combination of words which conveys at
least one complete thought consisting of combination
of concepts.
One usually simply patterns his sentences after those
he has read or heard .Something more than imitation
is necessary. That understands of sentence structure.
Parts of speech: Nouns - Verbs - Pronouns Adjectives - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions Interjections
Other English topics: Gerunds and participles Orthography - Punctuation - Syntax - Appositives -
The Sentence
Subjects and Verbs
Subject: is a word (or group of words) which names
or indicates a person or thing about which something
is said.
e.g.) the boy consulted the teacher.
The pencil was good.
Hunting rabbits is fun.
How to find the subject of the verb
1) Form question by who or what before the verb.
2) The answer to the question is the subject of the
verb
Children play.
Who play?
Children.
The thunder frightens the dog .
What frightens ?
Thunder ‫الرعد‬
The man was promoted , The book seems long .
*** Sometimes the subject is understood rather than
expressed .
e.g ) Stop .
Shut the door .
Substantive
.
.
Substantive
is : a noun
A pronoun , or
A word or word–group functioning a noun
1) NOUNS
A noun is the name of a person or thing .
e.g ) teacher , Asia , desk , reading , happiness .
Nouns classification :
1. Common Noun
2. Collective Noun
3. Material Noun
4. Abstract Noun
5. Proper Noun
common nouns .
child , city , cow , walking , loyalty .
proper nouns .
George Washington , the UAE …
2 ) PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word which stands for a noun .
e.g ) I , YOU , HE , IT , THAT , WHO , WHICH .
The classification of Pronouns:
1. Personal Pronoun:
2. Demonstrative Pronoun:
3. Indefinite Pronoun
4. Reflexive Pronoun
5. Reciprocal Pronoun
6. Intensive Pronoun
7. Interrogative Pronoun
8. Indefinite relative Pronoun
9. Relative Pronoun
The Classification of Nouns and Pronouns:
1- Person :
first person : the person speaking ( I , we )
second person : the person or thing spoken to (
you )
third person : the person or thing spoken of ( he ,
she , it , they )
2- Number :
A) Singular and Plural Numbers
1) singular
2) plural
e.g) girl , ceiling , defeat .
e.g ) children , leavers .
B) Collective Nouns :
A noun which names a group is called a
collective noun .
e.g ) class , audience , crowd , group , team .
* collective nouns can be singular or plural .
The team is winning the game ( singular ) .
The team are wearing sweaters ( plural ) .
 If we add ( s) to the collective noun it is no more
collective because it refers to more than one
group . e.g) classes , teams …
3- GENDER
a) Masculine : man , he , bull
(person or animal male )
b) Feminine : woman , she , cow .
( person or animal female )
c) Neuter
: road , house , it (' it' doesn't have
sex ) ( thing )
d) Common : child , person , dog , someone .
(person or animal without showing sex of
common gender )
Three Types of Nouns and Pronouns
1- personal pronoun .
1st person
2nd person
3rd person
singular
I
You
He , she , it
Plural
We
You
They
2- Demonstrative pronoun : ( it is always in the
third person )
It points one or more persons or things .
singular
This
That
Plural
these
Those
e.g ) 1- That is the library .
2- These are expensive .
3- Indefinite pronoun : ( third person )
It refers to one or more persons or things but
doesn't definitely point which one or ones are
meant .
a- singular in pronoun : each , none , some , all
, one ( person ) , either , neither , anyone ,
everyone , someone , anyone , everyone ,
somebody , nobody , anybody , everybody ,
something , nothing .
b- plural in pronoun : none , some , all, both ,
few , several , many.
e.g) one must be brave .
Everybody is present .
Several have finished the exam .
 When measuring quantity ( none , some , all ) are
singular .
 When measuring number (none , some , all ) are
plural .
e.g ) 1- None ( some , all ) of the soup was left . (
Q)
2- None (some, all) of the marbles were
under the bed . ( N)
Pronoun Case
Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter.
There are three cases.
1. Subjective case: pronouns used as
subject.
2. Objective case: pronouns used as
objects of verbs or prepositions.
3. Possessive case: pronouns which
express ownership.
Pronouns
Pronouns
Pronouns as
as
that show
OBJECTS
SUBJECTS
POSSESSION
I
me
my (mine)
you
you
your (yours)
he, she, it him, her, it
we
they
who
us
them
whom
his, her
(hers), it (its)
our (ours)
their (theirs)
whose
The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE,
and WHICH do not change form.
Some problems of case:
1. In compound structures, where there
are two pronouns or a noun and a
pronoun, drop the other noun for a
moment. Then you can see which case
you want.
NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal.
(Would you say, "me travel"?)
NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.
(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)
NOT: Us men like the coach.
(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)
2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually
follow than or as:
He is taller than I (am tall).
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
She is as noisy as I (am).
Comparisons are really shorthand
sentences which usually omit words,
such as those in the parentheses in the
sentences above. If you complete the
comparison in your head, you can
choose the correct case for the pronoun.
NOT: He is taller than me.
"than me am tall"?).
(Would you say,
3. In formal and semiformal writing:
Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
FORMAL: It is I.
INFORMAL: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.
FORMAL: To whom am I talking?
INFORMAL: Who am I talking to?
Verb
Verb: is a word (or group of words) which says
something
addition to the subject, indicating action, possession,
or state of
being.
e.g ) The plane flew . (Simple present and simple past)
Ali has a car.
(Has, have, and had)
The man is tall. (Is, are, am, was, were ...)
*** A group of words which performs the verb
function is called verb phrase.
She is hitting the ball.
She will hit the ball.
( have , has , is , are , will , would , may , be .. ….. )
Auxiliary or helping verbs
A. Prosperities of Verbs
1. Mood
2. Tense
3. Voice
4. Person and Number
1.Mood
There are 3 non-finite (i.e. not conjugated) moods and 5
finite moods (i.e. conjugated) in English, which makes a
total of 8 moods:


Non-finite moods:
o Infinitive (to be)
o Participle (being)
o Gerund (being)
Finite moods:
o Indicative mood (I am)
o Conditional mood (I would be)
o Potential mood (I may be)
o Subjunctive mood (I be)
o Imperative mood (be!)
In this chapter we are going to discuss only these
moods:
1. Indicative mood (I am) example: The child
lost the toy.
2. Subjunctive mood (I be) example: If I were
you, I would go.
3. Imperative mood (be!) example: Stop! ; Shut
the door.
2.Tense
There are 12 tenses:












Simple present (I am)
Present progressive or Present continuous (I am
being)
Present perfect (I have been)
Present perfect progressive or present perfect
continuous (I have been being)
Simple past (I was)
Past progressive or Past continuous (I was being)
Past perfect or pluperfect (I had been)
Past perfect progressive, pluperfect progressive,
past perfect continuous or pluperfect continuous (I
had been being)
Simple future (I shall be)
Future progressive or Future continuous (I shall be
being)
Future perfect (I shall have been)
Future perfect progressive or Future perfect
continuous (I shall have been being)
All non-auxiliaries exhibit two more tenses:


Intensive present (I do play)
Intensive past (I did play)
3.Voice
There are 2 voices:


Active voice (I play)
Passive voice (I am played)
Verbs can be Passive or Active.
An Active verb is a verb in an active sentence, in which
the subject performs the verb. An example of an active
verb in an active sentence is 'I hit the dog.'
A Passive verb is a verb in a passive sentence. In a
passive sentence, the action is performed upon the
subject. An example of this is: 'The dog was hit by me.'.
The two sentences have the same denotative meaning,
but their connotative meaning is quite different; active
verbs are much more powerful and personal.
There are two forms of passive voice: "He gave me the
book." => "The book was given to me." or "I was given
the book." The second form is preferred.
English, like many Germanic languages, contains both
strong (or irregular; they aren't quite the same thing) and
weak (regular) verbs. Irregular verbs are one of the most
difficult aspects of learning English. Each irregular verb
must be memorized, because they are not often easy to
identify otherwise.
Verbs are divided again, with respect to their
signification, into four classes; active-transitive, activeintransitive, passive, and neuter.
An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an
action which has some person or thing for its object; as,
"Cain slew Abel."
"Cassius loved Brutus."
An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an
action which has no person or thing for its object; as,
"John walks."
"Jesus wept."
A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, or
what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon; as,
"I am compelled."
"Caesar was slain."
A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor
passion, but simply being, or a state of being; as,
"There was light."
"The babe sleeps."
Verbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, Moods,
Tenses, Persons and Numbers.
There are five moods; the Infinitive, the Indicative, the
Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative.
The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which
expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited
manner, and without person or number: as,
"To die,--to sleep;--To sleep!--perchance, to dream!"
(from Hamlet by William Shakespeare)
The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which
simply indicates or declares a thing: as,
I write
you know
or asks a question; as,
Do you know?
Know ye not?
The Potential mood is that form of the verb which
expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of
the being, action, or passion: as,
I can walk.
He may ride.
We must go.
The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which
represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional,
doubtful, and contingent: as,
"If thou go, see that thou offend not."
"See thou do it not."--Rev., xix, 10.
God save the queen.
It is a requirement that ... be done.
It's high time you were in bed.
If I were you,...
The Imperative mood is that form of the verb which is
used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or
permitting: as,
"Depart thou."
"Be comforted."
"Forgive me."
"Go in peace."
4. Number and person
There are 2 grammatical numbers and 3 grammatical
persons:






First person singular: I
Second person singular: you or thou
Third person singular: he, she, it or a singular noun
First person plural: we
Second person plural: you
Third person plural: they or a plural noun

The person and number of a verb are those modifications
in which it agrees with its subject or nominative.
In each number, there are three persons; and in each
person, two numbers: thus,
Singular. 1st per. I love, 3d per. He loves; Plural. 1. We
love, 2. You love, 3. They love.
Definitions universally applicable have already been
given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to
define them again in this place.
Where the verb is varied, the third person singular is
regularly formed by adding s or es: as, I see, he sees; I
give, he gives; I go, he goes; I fly, he flies; I vex, he
vexes; I lose, he loses.
Where the verb is not varied to denote its person and
number, these properties are inferred from its subject or
nominative: as, If I love, if he love; if we love, if you
love, if they love.
Classification of Verbs
1. Transitive
2. Intransitive
3. Linking
Tenses
Tenses
Structure
Simple present
S+v1+obj
Simple past
Simple future
Present perfect
S+v2+obj
S+will+v1+obj
S+ has /have + p.p
+ obj
S+ had+p.p+obj
S+will
have+p.p+obj
S+is/are/am+(v+in
g)+obj
S+was/were+(v+in
g)+obj
S+will be+(v+ing )
+obj
S+has/have+been
+(v+ing)
S+ had
been+(v+ing)
S+will have
Past perfect
Future perfect
Present
progressive
Past progressive
Future
progressive
Present perfect
progressive
Past perfect
progressive
future perfect
‫مفرد‬
‫جم‬
‫ع‬
does Do
did
will
has
Ha
ve
Had
Will
have
Is
are am
–i
was W
ere
Will be
has
ha
ve
had
will have
emphatic
s+do/does+v1
+obj
s+did+v1+obj
progressive
been+( v+ing)
been
Note : he , she , it
= ‫مفرد‬
We , they , you = ‫جمع‬
Note : Do – I
Was – I
Have – I
Am - I
Note : emphatic ‫يأتي مع المضارع البسيط و الماضي البسيط فقط‬
S+ do/does+v1+obj ‫ المضارع البسيط‬e.g) 1- I do come
early . 2- she does speak English
S+Did+v1+obj ‫الماضي البسيط‬
e.g ) 1- they did
study hard .
Note : Do /does / did / will + v1
Have /has / had
+ p.p
Is/ are / am / was / were + ( v+ ing )
Is , are , am + v + ing ‫مضارع مستمر‬
Was , were + v + ing ‫ماضي مستمر‬
Do , does + v1
‫مضارع بسيط‬
Did + v1
‫ماضي بسيط‬
Do : they , we , you , I
Does : he , she , it
A regular English verb has only one principal part, the infinitive or dictionary form
(which is identical to the simple present tense for all persons and numbers except the
third person singular). All other forms of a regular verb can be derived
straightforwardly from the infinitive, for a total of four forms (e.g. exist, exists,
existed, existing)
English irregular verbs (except to be) have at most three principal parts:
Part
Example:
1 infinitive
write
2 Past
wrote
3 past participle written
Strong verbs like write have all three distinct parts, for a total of five forms (e. g.
write, writes, wrote, written, writing). The more irregular weak verbs also require up
to three forms to be learned.
The highly irregular copular verb to be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, being, was,
were, been, of which only one is derivable from a principal part (being is derived
from be). On the history of this verb, see Indo-European copula.
Verbs had more forms when the pronoun thou was still in regular use and there was a
number distinction in the second person. To be, for instance, had art, wast and wert.
Most of the strong verbs that survive in modern English are considered irregular.
Irregular verbs in English come from several historical sources; some are technically
strong verbs (i. e. their forms display specific vowel changes of the type known as
ablaut in linguistics); others have had various phonetic changes or contractions added
to them over the history of English.
Infinitive and basic form
Formation
The infinitive in English is the naked root form of the word. When it is being used as a
verbal noun, the particle to is usually prefixed to it. When the infinitive stands as the
predicate of an auxiliary verb, to may be omitted, depending on the requirements of
the idiom.
Uses

The infinitive, in English, is one of two verbal nouns: To write is to
learn.

The infinitive, either marked with to or unmarked, is used as the
complement of many auxiliary verbs: I will write a novel about
talking beavers; I am really going to write it.

The basic form also forms the English imperative mood: Write
these words!

The basic form makes the English subjunctive mood: If you write
it, they will read.
Third person singular
Formation
The third person singular in regular verbs in English is distinguished by the suffix -s.
In English spelling, this -s is added to the stem of the infinitive form: run → runs.
If the base ends in a sibilant sound like /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/ (see IPA) that is not followed
by a silent E, the suffix is written -es: buzz → buzzes; catch → catches.
If the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to an i and -es is affixed to the
end: cry → cries.
Verbs ending in o typically add -es: veto → vetoes.
The third person singular present indicative in English is notable cross-linguistically
for being a morphologically marked form for a semantically unmarked one. That is to
say the the third person singular is usually taken to be the most basic form in a given
verbal category and as such, according to markedness theory, should have the
simplest of forms in its paradigm. This is clearly not the case with English where the
other persons exhibit the bare root and nothing more.
In Early Modern English, some dialects distinguished the third person singular with
the suffix -th; after consonants this was written -eth, and some consonants were
doubled when this was added: run → runneth.
Use

The third person singular is used exclusively in the third person form of the
English simple "present tense", which often has other uses besides the simple
present: He writes airport novels about anthropomorphic rodents.
Exception
English preserves a number of past -present verbs, such as can and may. These verbs
lack a separate form for the third person singular: she can, she may. All surviving
preterits-present verbs in modern English are auxiliary verbs. The verb will, although
historically not a preterits-present verb, has come to be inflected like one when used
as an auxiliary; it adds -s in the third person singular only when it is a full verb:
Whatever she wills to happen will make life annoying for everyone else.
Present participle
Formation
The present participle is made by the suffix -ing: go → going.
If the base ends in silent e, it is dropped before adding the suffix: believe → believing.
If the e is not silent, it is retained: agree → agreeing.
If the base ends in -ie, change the ie to y and add -ing: lie → lying.
If:

the base form ends in a single consonant; and

a single vowel precedes that consonant; and

the last syllable of the base form is stressed
then the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix: set → setting; occur →
occurring.
In British English, as an exception, the final <l> is subject to doubling even when the
last syllable is not stressed: yodel → yodelling, travel → travelling; in American
English, these follow the rule: yodeling, traveling.
Irregular forms include:

singeing, where the e is (sometimes) not dropped to avoid
confusion with singing;

ageing, in British English, where the expected form aging is
ambiguous as to whether it has a hard or soft g;

words ending in -c, which add k before the -ing, for example,
trafficking, panicking, frolicking, and bivouacking.

a number of words that are subject to the doubling rule even
though they do not fall squarely within its terms, such as
diagramming, kidnapping, programming, and worshipping.
Uses

The present participle is another English verbal noun: Writing is
learning (see gerund for this sense).

It is used as an adjective: a writing desk; building beavers.

It is used to form a past, present or future tense with progressive or
imperfective force: He is writing another long book about beavers.

It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: He tried
writing about opossums instead, but his muse deserted him.
Preterite
Formation
In weak verbs, the preterite is formed with the suffix -ed: work → worked.
If the base ends in e, -d is simply added to it: hone → honed; dye > dyed.
Where the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to i before the -ed is added;
deny → denied.
Where the base ends in a vowel plus y, the y is retained: alloy → alloyed.
The rule for doubling the final consonant in regular weak verbs for the preterite is the
same as the rule for doubling in the present participle; see above.
Many strong verbs and other irregular verbs form the preterite differently, for which
see that article.
Use

The preterite is used for the English simple (non-iterative or
progressive) past tense. He wrote two more chapters about the dam
at Kashawigamog Lake.
Past participle
Formation
In regular weak verbs, the past participle is always the same as the preterite.
Irregular verbs may have separate preterites and past participles;
Uses

The past participle is used with the auxiliary have for the English perfect
tenses: They have written about the slap of tails on water, about the scent of
the lodge... (With verbs of motion, an archaic form with be may be found in
older texts: he is come.)

With be, it forms the passive voice: It is written so well, you can feel what it's
like to gnaw down trees!

It is used as an adjective: the written word; a broken dam.

It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: 500,000 words got
written in record time.
Tenses of the English verb
English verbs, like those in many other western European languages, have more
tenses than forms; tenses beyond the ones possible with the five forms listed above
are formed with auxiliary verbs, as are the passive voice forms of these verbs.
Important auxiliary verbs in English include will, used to form the future tense; shall,
formerly used mainly for the future tense, but now used mainly for commands and
directives; be, have, and do, which are used to form the supplementary tenses of the
English verb, to add aspect to the actions they describe, or for negation.
English verbs display complex forms of negation. While simple negation was used
well into the period of early Modern English (Touch not the royal person!) in
contemporary English negation almost always requires that the negative particle be
attached to an auxiliary verb such as do or be. I go not is archaic; I don't go or I am
not going are what the contemporary idiom requires.
English exhibits similar idiomatic complexity with the interrogative mood, which in
Indo-European languages is not, strictly speaking, a mood. Like many other Western
European languages, English historically allowed questions to be asked by inverting
the position of verb and subject: Whither goest thou? Now, in English, questions are
often trickily idiomatic, and require the use of auxiliary verbs, though occasionally,
the interrogative mood is still used in Modern English.
Overview of tenses
In English grammar, tense refers to any conjugated form expressing time, aspect or
mood. The large number of different composite verb forms means that English has the
richest and subtlest system of tense and aspect of any Germanic language. This can be
confusing for foreign learners; however, the English verb is in fact very systematic
once one understands that in each of the three time spheres - past, present and future English has a basic tense which can then be made either perfect or progressive
(continuous) or both.
Simple
Progressive
Perfect
Perfect progressive
Future I will write I will be writing I will have written I will have been writing
Present I write
I am writing
I have written
I have been writing
Past
I was writing
I had written
I had been writing
I wrote
Because of the neatness of this system, modern textbooks on English generally use the
terminology in this table. What was traditionally called the "perfect" is here called
"present perfect" and the "pluperfect" becomes "past perfect", in order to show the
relationships of the perfect forms to their respective simple forms. Whereas in other
Germanic languages, or in Old English, the "perfect" is just a past tense, the English
"present perfect" has a present reference; it is both a past tense and a present tense,
describing the connection between a past event and a present state.
However, historical linguists sometimes prefer terminology which applies to all
Germanic languages and is more helpful for comparative purposes; when describing
wrote as a historical form, for example, we would say "preterite" rather than "past
simple".
This table, of course, omits a number of forms which can be regarded as additional to
the basic system:

the intensive present I do write

the intensive past I did write

the habitual past I used to write

the "shall future" I shall write

the "going-to future" I am going to write

the "future in the past" I was going to write

the conditional I would write

the perfect conditional I would have written

the (increasingly seldom used) subjunctives, if I be, if I were.
Some systems of English grammar eliminate the future tense altogether, treating
will/would simply as modal verbs, in the same category as other modal verbs such as
can/could and may/might. See Grammatical tense for a more technical discussion of
this subject.
A full inventory of verb forms follows.
Present simple
Or simple present.

Affirmative: I write; He writes

Negative: He does not (doesn't) write

Interrogative: Does he write?

Negative interrogative: Does he not write? (Doesn't he write?)
Note that the "simple present" in idiomatic English often identifies habitual or
customary action:
He writes about beavers (understanding that he does so all the
time.)
It is used with stative verbs:
She thinks beavers are remarkable
It can also have a future meaning (though much less commonly than in many other
languages):
She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesday.
Put Tuesday in the plural, and She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesdays means that she
goes to Milwaukee every Tuesday.
The present simple has an intensive or emphatic form with "do": He does write. In the
negative and interrogative forms, of course, this is identical to the non-emphatic
forms. It is typically used as a response to the question Does he write, whether that
question is expressed or implied, and says that indeed, he does write.
The idiomatic use of the negative particles not and -n't in the interrogative form is
also worth noting. In formal literary English of the sort in which contractions are
avoided, not attaches itself to the main verb: Does he not write? When the colloquial
contraction -n't is used, this attaches itself to the auxiliary do: Doesn't he write? This
in fact is a contraction of a more archaic word order, still occasionally found in
poetry: *Does not he write?
Past simple
Or preterite.

Affirmative: He wrote

Negative: He did not write

Interrogative: Did he write?

Negative interrogative: Did he not write? (Didn't he write?)
The same change of word order in the negative interrogative that distinguishes the
formal and informal register also applies to the preterite. Note also that the preterite
form is also used only in the affirmative. When the sentence is recast as a negative or
interrogative, he wrote not and wrote he? are archaic and not used in modern English.
They must instead be supplied by periphrastic forms.
This tense is used for a single event in the past, sometimes for past habitual action,
and in chronological narration. Like the present simple, it has emphatic forms with
"do": he did write.
Although it is sometimes taught that the difference between the present perfect and
the simple past is that the perfect denotes a completed action whereas the past denotes
an incomplete action, this theory is clearly false. Both forms are normally used for
completed actions. (Indeed the English preterite comes from the Proto-Indo-European
perfect.) And either can be used for incomplete actions. The real distinction is that the
present perfect is used when the time frame either is the present or includes the
present, whereas the simple past is used when the time frame is in the absolute past.
The "used to" past tense for habitual actions is probably best included under the
bracket of the past simple. Compare:
When I was young I played football every Saturday.
When I was young I used to play football every Saturday.
The difference is slight, but "used to" stresses the regularity, and the fact that the
action has been discontinued.
Future simple

Affirmative: He will write

Negative: He will not / won't write

Interrogative: Will he write?

Negative interrogative: Will he not write? (Won't he write?)
See the article Shall and Will for a discussion of the two auxiliary verbs used to form
the simple future in English. There is also a future with "go" which is used especially
for intended actions, and for the weather, and generally is more common in colloquial
speech:
I'm going to write a book some day.
I think it's going to rain.
But the will future is preferred for spontaneous decisions:
Jack: "I think we should have a barbecue!"
Jill: "Good idea! I'll go get the coal.
Present perfect
Traditionally just called the perfect.

Affirmative: He has written

Negative: He has not written

Interrogative: Has he written?

Negative interrogative: Has he not written? (Hasn't he written?)
This indicates that a past event has one of a range of possible relationships to the
present. This may be a focus on present result: He has written a very fine book (and
look, here it is, we have it now). Or it may indicate a time-frame which includes the
present. I have lived here since my youth (and I still do). Compare: Have you written a
letter this morning? (it is still morning) with Did you write a letter this morning? (it is
now afternoon). The perfect tenses are frequently used with the adverbs already or
recently or with since clauses. Although the label “perfect tense” implies a completed
action, the present perfect can identify habitual (I have written letters since I was ten
years old.) or continuous (I have lived here for fifteen years.) action.
In addition to these normal uses where the time frame either is the present or includes
the present, the “have done” construct is used in temporal clauses to define a future
time: When you have written it, show it to me. It also forms a past infinitive, used
when infinitive constructions require a past perspective: Mozart is said to have written
his first symphony at the age of eight. (Notice that if not for the need of an infinitive,
the simple past would have been used here: He wrote it at age eight.) The past
infinitive is also used in the conditional perfect.
Past perfect
Or the "pluperfect"

Affirmative: He had written

Negative: He had not / hadn't written

Interrogative: Had he written?

Negative interrogative: Had he not written? (Hadn't he written?)
Future perfect

Affirmative: He will have written

Negative: He will not / won't have written

Interrogative: Will he have written?

Negative interrogative: Will he not have written? (Won't he have written?)
Used for something which will be completed by a certain time (perfect in the literal
sense) or which leads up to a point in the future which is being focused on.
I
will have finished my essay by Thursday.
By then she will have been there for three weeks.
Present progressive
Or present continuous.

Affirmative: He is writing

Negative: He is not writing

Interrogative: Is he writing?

Negative interrogative: Is he not writing? (Isn't he writing?)
This form describes the simple engagement in a present activity, with the focus on
action in progress "at this very moment". It too can indicate a future, particularly
when discussing plans already in place: I am flying to Paris tomorrow. Used with
"always" it suggests irritation; compare He always does that (neutral) with He's
always doing that. Word order differs here in the negative interrogative between the
hyper formal is he not writing and the usual isn't he writing?
Past continuous
Or imperfect or past progressive.

Affirmative: He was writing

Negative: He was not writing

Interrogative: Was he writing?

Negative interrogative: Was he not writing? (Wasn't he writing?)
This is typically used for two events in parallel:
While I was washing the dishes my wife was walking the dog.
Or for an interrupted action (the past simple being used for the interruption):
While I was washing the dishes I heard a loud noise.
Or when we are focusing on a point in the middle of a longer action:
At three o'clock yesterday I was working in the garden. (Contrast: I
worked in the garden all day yesterday.)
Future progressive

Affirmative: He will be writing

Negative: He will not / won't be writing

Interrogative: Will he be writing?

Negative interrogative: Will he not be writing? (Won't he be writing?)
Used especially to indicate that an event will be in progress at a particular point in the
future: This time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test.
Present perfect progressive
Or continuous.

Affirmative: He has been writing

Negative: He has not been writing

Interrogative: Has he been writing?

Negative interrogative: Has he not been writing? (Hasn't he been writing?)
Used for unbroken action in the past which continues right up to the present. I have
been writing this paper all morning (and still am).
Past perfect progressive
Or "pluperfect progressive" or "continuous"

Affirmative: He had been writing

Negative: He had not been / hadn't been writing

Interrogative: Had he been writing?

Negative interrogative: Had he not been writing? (Hadn't he been writing?)
Relates to the past perfect much as the present perfect progressive relates to the
present perfect, but tends to be used with less precision.
"
Future perfect progressive
Or future perfect continuous.

Affirmative: He will have been writing

Negative: He will not / won't have been writing

Interrogative: Will he have been writing?

Negative interrogative: Will he not have been writing? (Won't he have been
writing?)
Conditional
Or past subjunctive.

Affirmative: He would write

Negative: He would not / wouldn't write

Interrogative: Would he write?

Negative interrogative: Would he not write? (Wouldn't he write?)
Used principally in a main clause accompanied by an implicit or explicit doubt or "ifclause"; may refer to conditional statements in present or future time:
I would like to pay now if it's not too much trouble. (in present time; doubt of
possibility is explicit)
I would like to pay now. (in present time; doubt is implicit)
I would do it if she asked me to. (in future time; doubt is explicit)
I would do it. (in future time; doubt is implicit)
(A very common error by foreign learners is to put the would into the if-clause itself.
A humorous formulation of the rule for the EFL classroom runs: "If and would you
never should, if and will makes teacher ill!" But of course, both will and would CAN
occur in an if-clause when expressing volition. A student of English may rarely
encounter the incorrect construction as it can occur as an archaic form.)
Voice of speech can be active or passive. Principally in passive voice the same tenses
can be used as in active voice.
He gave me the book.
The book was given to me.
I was given the book.
There are however some things to note.
They build a house.
The house is built.
Here active and passive do not really represent the same tense. If for example you
describe a picture where people build a house, the first sentence is perfectly correct.
The second sentence however will be interpreted as the static perfect of the sentence
The house has been built - it is built now.
This is, the house is now ready and not under construction. So the correct passive
form is
The house is being built.
Passive voice can be built quite formally by adhering to some rules. You will however
not find normally all tenses as in active voice. Formal rules will lead you to
monstrosities like the following, you will certainly never hear (already the active
sentence is quite monstrous):
The speech will have been being held for four hours when finally you'll arrive.
(The president will have been holding a speech for four hours when
There are 2 voices:


Active voice (I play)
Passive voice (I am played)
The conjugation of verbs
The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its
moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles.
There are four PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of
every simple and complete verb; namely, the Present, the
Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect
Participle. A verb which wants any of these parts, is
called defective; such are most of the auxiliaries.
An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the
principal parts of an other verb, to express some
particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion.
The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and
must, with their variations.
To do.
Present tense; and sign of the indicative present.
Sing. I do, he does; Plur. We do, you do, they do.
Imperfect tense; and sign of the indicative imperfect.
Sing. I did, he did; Plur. We did, you did, they did.
To be.
Present tense; and sign of the indicative present.
Sing. I am, he is; Plur. We are, you are, they are.
Imperfect tense; and sign of the indicative imperfect.
Sing. I was, he was; Plur. We were, you were; they were.
To have.
Present tense; but sign of the indicative perfect.
Sing. I have, he has; Plur. We have, you have, they have.
Imperfect tense; but sign of the indicative pluperfect.
Sing. I had, he had; Plur. We had, you had, they had.
Shall and will.
Often confused with each other in modern English.
These auxiliaries have distinct meanings, and, as signs of
the future, they are interchanged thus:
Present tense; but sign of the indicative first-future.
Simply to express a future action or event:-Sing. I shall, he will; Plur. We shall, you will, they will.
To express a promise, command, or threat:-Sing. I will, he shall; Plur. We will, you shall, they shall.
Imperfect tense; but, as signs, aorist, or indefinite.
Used with reference to duty or expediency:-Sing. I should, he should; Plur. We should, you should,
they should.
Used with reference to volition or desire:-Sing. I would, he would; Plur. We would, you would,
they would.
See also: Shall and will by Wikipedia
May.
Present tense; and sign of the potential present.
Sing. I may, he may; Plur. We may, you may, they may.
Imperfect tense; and sign of the potential imperfect.
Sing. I might, he might; Plur. We might, you might, they
might.
Can.
Present tense; and sign of the potential present.
Sing. I can, he can; Plur. We can, you can, they can.
Imperfect tense; and sign of the potential imperfect.
Sing. I could, he could; Plur. We could, you could, they
could.
Must.
Present tense; and sign of the potential present.
Sing. I must, he must; Plur. We must, you must, they
must.
If must is ever used in the sense of the Imperfect tense,
or Preterit, the form is the same as that of the Present:
this word is entirely invariable.
Verb may be conjugated in four ways.
Affirmatively; as, I write, I do write, or, I am writing;
and so on.
Negatively; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not
writing.
Interrogatively; as, Write I? Do I write? or, Am I
writing?
Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I not? Do I not
write? or, Am I not writing?
Simple form, active or neuter.
The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that
which makes the present and imperfect tenses without
auxiliaries; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for
the potential mood, and are often preferred for the
indicative.
Active conjugation
Weak verbs (to play)
Nonfinite
forms
to play (present simple), to be playing (present simple
Infinitiv
progressive), to have played (present perfect), to have
es
been playing (present perfect progressive)
playing (present), being playing (present simple
Participl
progressive), having played (present perfect), having
es
been playing (present perfect progressive)
playing (present), being playing (present simple
Gerunds progressive), having played (present perfect), having
been playing (present perfect progressive)
Indicati
I
ve
simple
present
play
intensive do
present play
you
play
do
play
thou
he,
we
she, it
you
they
playest
plays
(playet play
h)
play
play
doest
play
does
play do
(doeth play
play)
do
play
do
play
simple
am
are
present
art
playin playin
progress
playing
g
g
ive
simple
past
is
are
are
are
playin playin playin playin
g
g
g
g
playe playe
playe playe playe
playedst played
d
d
d
d
d
intensive did
past
play
did
play
didst
play
simple
was were
past
wert
playin playin
progress
playing
g
g
ive
simple
future
present
perfect
progress
ive
did
play
did
play
did
play
was
were were were
playin playin playin playin
g
g
g
g
shall/ shall/
shall/ shall/ shall/ shall/
shalt/wilt
will
will
will
will
will
will
play
play play
play play play play
shall/
simple
will
future
be
progress
playin
ive
g
present
perfect
did
play
shall/
shall/
will
shalt/wilt
will be
be
be
playin
playin playing
g
g
shall/
will
be
playin
g
shall/
will
be
playin
g
shall/
will
be
playin
g
have have
hast
playe playe
played
d
d
has
played
have have have
(havet
playe playe playe
h
d
d
d
played
)
have
been
playin
g
have
been
playin
g
(havet
h been
playin
have
hast
been
been
playin
playing
g
have
been
playin
g
have
been
playin
g
have
been
playin
g
g)
past
had
had
perfect
hadst
playe playe
(pluperf
played
d
d
ect)
had
had
had
had
playe playe playe
played
d
d
d
past
perfect
(pluperf
ect)
progress
ive
had
been
playin
g
had
hadst
been
been
playin
playing
g
had
been
playin
g
had
been
playin
g
had
been
playin
g
had
been
playin
g
future
perfect
shall/
will
have
playe
d
shall/
shall/
will
shalt/wilt
will
have have
have
playe played
played
d
shall/
will
have
playe
d
shall/
will
have
playe
d
shall/
will
have
playe
d
shall/
future
will
perfect have
progress been
ive
playin
g
shall/
will
have
been
playin
g
shall/
shalt/wilt will
have
have
been
been
playing playin
g
shall/
will
have
been
playin
g
shall/
will
have
been
playin
g
shall/
will
have
been
playin
g
Conditi
I
onal
you
thou
you
they
simple
present
would would wouldst
play play play
he,
we
she, it
would would would would
play play play play
simple
present
progress
ive
would
be
playin
g
would
wouldst
be
be
playin
playing
g
would
be
playin
g
would
be
playin
g
would
be
playin
g
would
be
playin
g
present
perfect
would
have
playe
d
would
wouldst
have
have
playe
played
d
would
would
have
have
playe
played
d
would
have
playe
d
would
have
playe
d
would
present
have
perfect
been
progress
playin
ive
g
would
have
been
playin
g
wouldst
have
been
playing
would
have
been
playin
g
would
have
been
playin
g
would
have
been
playin
g
Potentia
I
l
you
thou
he,
we
she, it
you
they
simple
present
may
play
may
play
mayest
play
may
play
may
play
may
play
may
play
simple
present
progress
ive
may
be
playin
g
may
mayest
be
be
playin
playing
g
may
be
playin
g
may
be
playin
g
may
be
playin
g
may
be
playin
g
simple
past
might might mightst
play play play
might might might might
play play play play
simple
past
might might mightst
be
be
be
might might might might
be
be
be
be
would
have
been
playin
g
progress playin playin playing
ive
g
g
may
mayest
have
have
playe
played
d
may
may
have
have
playe
played
d
may
have
playe
d
may
have
playe
d
may
present
have
perfect
been
progress
playin
ive
g
may
have
been
playin
g
may
have
been
playin
g
may
have
been
playin
g
may
have
been
playin
g
may
have
been
playin
g
past
perfect
(pluperf
ect)
might
have
playe
d
might
mightst
have
have
playe
played
d
might
might
have
have
playe
played
d
might
have
playe
d
might
have
playe
d
past
perfect
(pluperf
ect)
progress
ive
might
have
been
playin
g
might
have
been
playin
g
might
have
been
playing
might
have
been
playin
g
might
have
been
playin
g
might
have
been
playin
g
Subjunc
I
tive
you
thou
he,
we
she, it
you
they
simple
present
play
play
play
play
play
present
perfect
may
have
playe
d
playin playin playin playin
g
g
g
g
play
mayest
have
been
playing
might
have
been
playin
g
play
simple
be
be
present
playin playin
progress
g
g
ive
simple
past
be
be
be
be
be
playing/
playin playin playin playin
beest
g
g
g
g
playing
playe playe
played
d
d
simple
were were
past
were
playin playin
progress
playing
g
g
ive
played
playe playe playe
d
d
d
were were were were
playin playin playin playin
g
g
g
g
simple
future
shoul shoul shouldst should shoul shoul shoul
d play d play play
play d play d play d play
simple
future
progress
ive
shoul
d be
playin
g
present
perfect
have have
have
playe playe
played
d
d
have have have
have
playe playe playe
played
d
d
d
present
perfect
progress
ive
have
been
playin
g
have
been
playin
g
have
been
playin
g
past
perfect
had
had
had
playe playe
had
had
had
had
playe playe playe
shoul
should
shouldst
d be
be
be
playin
playin
playing
g
g
have
have
been
been
playin
playing
g
shoul
d be
playin
g
shoul
d be
playin
g
have
been
playin
g
shoul
d be
playin
g
have
been
playin
g
(pluperf d
ect)
d
played
played d
d
d
had
been
playin
g
had
been
playin
g
had
been
playin
g
had
been
playin
g
past
perfect
(pluperf
ect)
progress
ive)
had
been
playin
g
had
been had been
playin playing
g
future
perfect
shoul
d
have
playe
d
shoul
d
shouldst should
have have
have
playe played played
d
shoul
d
have
playe
d
shoul
d
have
playe
d
shoul
d
have
playe
d
shoul
future
d
perfect have
progress been
ive
playin
g
shoul
d
have
been
playin
g
should
shouldst
have
have
been
been
playin
playing
g
shoul
d
have
been
playin
g
shoul
d
have
been
playin
g
shoul
d
have
been
playin
g
Imperat
I
ive
you
thou
he,
we
she, it
you
they
let
them
play
do let
them
simple
present
let me
play
play
play
let
him/he let ' s
play
r/it
play
play
simple
present
do let
do
me
do play
do let do let
do
him/he us
(with to play
do)
play
r/it
play
play
play
play
simple
present
progress
ive
let me
be
be
be
playin
playin
playing
g
g
let
him/he
r/it be
playin
g
let
let ' s
be
them
be
playin be
playin
g
playin
g
g
simple
present
progress
ive (with
to do)
do let
do be
me be
do be
playin
playin
playing
g
g
do let
him/he
r/it be
playin
g
do let
do let
do be them
us be
playin be
playin
g
playin
g
g
present
perfect
let me
have
have
have
playe
playe
played
d
d
let
him/he
r/it
have
played
let
let ' s
have them
have
playe have
playe
d
playe
d
d
do
have do have
playe played
d
do let
him/he
r/it
have
played
do let
us
have
playe
d
do let
do
them
have
have
playe
playe
d
d
have
have
been
been
playin
playing
g
let
him/he
r/it
have
been
playin
let ' s
have
been
playin
g
let
have them
been have
playin been
g
playin
g
do let
present
me
perfect
have
(with to
playe
do)
d
let me
present
have
perfect
been
progress
playin
ive
g
g
do let
present
me
perfect
have
progress
been
ive (with
playin
to do)
g
do
have do have
been been
playin playing
g
do let
him/he
r/it
have
been
playin
g
do let
us
have
been
playin
g
do
have
been
playin
g
do let
them
have
been
playin
g
Auxiliaries
To do



The verb to do is used to form the active indicative
intensive present, the active indicative intensive past
and the imperative mood, except for the modal
verbs and the verb to be which do not possess such
forms
The verb to do is used to form the negative and
question form of the active indicative simple
present, the active indicative simple past and the
imperative mood, except for the modal verbs and
the verb to be which do not possess such forms
The forms do not and does not can be shortened to
don't and doesn't
Nonfinite
forms
Infinitives to do (present simple), to be doing (present simple
progressive), to have done (present perfect), to have been
doing (present perfect progressive)
doing(present), being doing (present simple progressive),
Participles having done (present perfect), having been doing (present
perfect progressive)
Gerunds
doing (present), being doing (present simple progressive),
having done (present perfect), having been doing (present
perfect progressive)
Indicativ
I
e
you
thou
he, she,
we
it
you
they
simple
present
do
doest
does
do
(doeth)
do
do
do do
do do
does do
doest do (doeth do do
do)
do do
do do
simple
present
am
progressiv doing
e
are
doing
art doing is doing
are
doing
are
doing
are
doing
simple
past
did
did
didst
did
did
did
did
intensive
past
did do did do didst do
did do
did do did do did do
was
doing
were
doing
intensive
present
do
simple
was
past
doing
progressiv
were
doing
wert
doing
were
doing
were
doing
e
simple
future
shall/w shall/w shalt/wilt shall/wi shall/w shall/w shall/w
ill do ill do do
ll do
ill do ill do ill do
simple
shall/w shall/w
shall/wi shall/w shall/w shall/w
future
shalt/wilt
ill be ill be
ll be
ill be ill be ill be
progressiv
be doing
doing doing
doing doing doing doing
e
present
perfect
have
done
hast
done
have
done
have
done
have
been
doing
have
been
have
hast been doing
been
doing
(haveth
doing
been
doing)
present
have
perfect
been
progressiv
doing
e
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
past
perfect
had
(pluperfec done
t)
had
done
hadst
done
had
done
had
done
had
done
had
done
past
perfect
had
(pluperfec
been
t)
doing
progressiv
e
had
been
doing
hadst
been
doing
had
been
doing
had
been
doing
had
been
doing
had
been
doing
future
have
done
has
done
have
(haveth done
done)
shall/w shall/w shalt/wilt shall/wi shall/w shall/w shall/w
ill have ill have have
ll have ill have ill have ill have
perfect
done
done
done
done
done
done
done
future
perfect
progressiv
e
shall/w
ill have
been
doing
shall/w
ill have
been
doing
shalt/wilt
have
been
doing
shall/wi
ll have
been
doing
shall/w
ill have
been
doing
shall/w
ill have
been
doing
shall/w
ill have
been
doing
Conditio
I
nal
you
thou
he, she,
we
it
you
they
simple
present
would
do
would
do
wouldst
do
would
do
would
do
would
do
would
do
simple
would
present
be
progressiv
doing
e
would
be
doing
would
wouldst
be
be doing
doing
would
be
doing
would
be
doing
would
be
doing
present
perfect
would
have
done
would
have
done
wouldst
have
done
would
have
done
would
have
done
would
have
done
would
have
done
present
perfect
progressiv
e
would
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
wouldst
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
you
thou
he, she,
we
it
you
they
Potential I
simple
present
may do may do
mayest
do
may do may do may do may do
simple
may be may be mayest
may be may be may be may be
present
doing
progressiv
e
doing
be doing doing
doing
doing
doing
simple
past
might
do
might
do
mightst
do
might
do
might
do
might
do
might
do
simple
might
past
be
progressiv
doing
e
might
be
doing
might
mightst
be
be doing
doing
might
be
doing
might
be
doing
might
be
doing
present
perfect
may
have
done
may
have
done
mayest
have
done
may
have
done
may
have
done
may
have
done
may
have
done
present
perfect
progressiv
e
may
have
been
doing
may
have
been
doing
mayest
have
been
doing
may
have
been
doing
may
have
been
doing
may
have
been
doing
may
have
been
doing
past
might
perfect
have
(pluperfec
done
t)
might
have
done
mightst
have
done
might
have
done
might
have
done
might
have
done
might
have
done
past
perfect
(pluperfec
t)
progressiv
e
might
have
been
doing
mightst
have
been
doing
might
have
been
doing
might
have
been
doing
might
have
been
doing
might
have
been
doing
you
thou
he, she,
we
it
you
they
might
have
been
doing
Subjuncti
I
ve
simple
present
do
do
do
simple
present
be
progressiv doing
e
be
doing
simple
past
did
simple
past
were
progressiv doing
e
simple
future
do
do
do
do
be
be
doing/be
doing
est doing
be
doing
be
doing
be
doing
did
did
did
did
did
did
were
doing
were
doing
were
doing
were
doing
were
doing
were
doing
should should shouldst should
do
do
do
do
should should should
do
do
do
simple
should should
should
future
shouldst
be
be
be
progressiv
be doing
doing doing
doing
e
should should should
be
be
be
doing doing doing
present
perfect
have
done
present
have
perfect
been
progressiv
doing
e
past
perfect
had
done
have
done
have
done
have
done
have
done
have
done
have
done
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
had
done
had done
had
done
had
done
had
done
had
done
(pluperfec
t)
past
perfect
had
(pluperfec
been
t)
doing
progressiv
e
had
been
doing
had
had been
been
doing
doing
had
been
doing
had
been
doing
had
been
doing
future
perfect
should should shouldst should
have
have
have
have
done
done
done
done
should should should
have
have
have
done
done
done
future
perfect
progressiv
e
should
have
been
doing
should
have
been
doing
Imperati
I
ve
simple
present
let me
do
simple
present
(with to
do)
do let
me do
simple
let me
present
be
progressiv
doing
e
should
have
been
doing
shouldst
have
been
doing
should
have
been
doing
you
thou
he, she,
we
it
do
let
let ' s
him/her
do
/it do
do do
do
do let
do let
him/her
us do
/it do
be
doing
let
let ' s
him/her
be doing
be
/it be
doing
doing
do
should
have
been
doing
should
have
been
doing
you
they
do
let
them
do
do do
do let
them
do
be
doing
let
them
be
doing
simple
present
do let
progressiv me be
e (with to doing
do)
do be
doing
present
perfect
let me
have
done
have
done
present
perfect
(with to
do)
do let
me
have
done
do
have
done
present
perfect
progressiv
e
let me
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
present
perfect
progressiv
e (with to
do)
do let
me
have
been
doing
do
have
been
doing
do be
doing
do let
do let
him/her
us be
/it be
doing
doing
do be
doing
do let
them
be
doing
have
done
let
let ' s
him/her
have
/it have
done
done
have
done
let
them
have
done
do have
done
do let
do let do
him/her
us have have
/it have
done
done
done
do let
them
have
done
have
been
doing
let
him/her
/it have
been
doing
let ' s
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
let
them
have
been
doing
do have
been
doing
do let
him/her
/it have
been
doing
do let
us have
been
doing
do
have
been
doing
do let
them
have
been
doing