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Honors Spring Semester Final Review Sheet
Protein Synthesis
1. Define the following:
a. Protein Synthesis: The process of making proteins
b. Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a protein that controls a trait
c. Transcription: Converting a DNA code into mRNA code; DNA  mRNA
d. Translation: Reading the mRNA code to bring in the amino acids for a protein; mRNA  protein
2. Where does transcription occur? Nucleus
Where does translation occur? Ribosome
3. If one side of the DNA read TAC/ATT/ATCa. What would the other side of the DNA be? ATG / TAA / TAG
b. What would the mRNA formed from this DNA sequence? AUG / UAA / UAG
c. Using the chart on pg. 303, what would the amino acid sequence be for this mRNA strand?
Methionine -- Stop
d. What would happen to the protein to be made, if the first codon was changed to ATC? Stop
4. Label the following:
DNA nucleus
translation
ribosome
amino acid (label only one)
protein chain
transcription mRNA (found in 2 places)
tRNA (label only one)
DNA
nucleus
The process of
copying DNA to
make mRNA is
called:
Transcription
mRNA
The process of
reading mRNA
to make proteins
is called:
Protein chain
mRNA
Translation
mRNA
ribosome
Amino acid
Match the following terms: (Terms may be used more than once.)
Deletions
Insertions
Inversions
Translocation
5. Deletion
Type of chromosomal mutation, where a segment of the chromosome is lost
6. Translocation
Chromosomal mutation where genes end up on chromosomes that normally never
had that gene
7. Insertion
Type of chromosomal mutation that results from crossing over in the wrong spot, causing
repeated genes to show up on one of the chromatids
8. Inversion
Type of chromosomal mutation where genes are flip-flopped on the same chromosome
(backwards)
9. Label each chromosome mutation below.
Inversion
Translocation
_______ Deletion
DuDuplication / Insertion
INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS
10. How is Gregor Mendel important to genetics? Father of Genetics; Discovered laws of genetics using pea plants
11. Define the following terms:
a. Dominant: Trait that is seen when at least one of these alleles is present
b. Recessive: Trait that is seen when the dominant allele is not present
c. Gene: - linear sequence of amino acids that code for a protein (which codes for a trait)
d. Allele: alternate forms of a gene
e. Genotype: the alleles that an organism inherits for a trait; represented by letters such as BB or Bb or bb
f.
Phenotype: how an organism physically looks; brown hair; brown eyes
12. What is the difference between homozygous dominant, heterozygous, and homozygous recessive genotypes?
Homozygous dominant = inheriting both dominant alleles for a trait; BB
Homozygous recessive = inheriting both recessive alleles for a trait; bb
Heterozygous = inheriting a dominant and a recessive allele for a trait; Bb
13. Describe incomplete dominance and give an example. When a gene is not completely dominant over another
gene; red snapdragons (RR) mated to white snapdragons (rr) produce pink snapdragons (Rr)
Tallness (T) is dominant over shortness (t) in pea plants. Answer the following questions.
Cross a homozygous dominant with a homozygous recessive.
What percent of the offspring will be short? 0% tall? 100%
Cross two heterozygous. Tt X Tt
What percent of the offspring will be heterozygous? 50% Homozygous recessive? 25%
MEIOSIS
14. What is meiosis? ? Producing haploid gametes (chromosome number = n) from diploid body cells
(chromosome number = 2n)
15. What is a gamete? Sex cell; egg or sperm cell; contains half the number of chromosomes as body cells
Define crossing over and briefly explain when it occurs and how it is beneficial. When homologous chromosomes
swap pieces of chromosomes; results in a new combination of genes (recombination); increases genetic
variation
Draw an example of crossing over and the results of crossing over.
16. Fill in the following table comparing haploid and diploid cells:
How many chromosome sets?
How is it written?
Examples
HAPLOID
1
n
23 (human gamete)
DIPLOID
2
2n
46 (human body cell)
HUMAN GENETICS
17. In humans, which parent determines the sex of the baby? Father
18. What is the genotype of a normal female? XX
Of a normal male? XY
19. Which blood type is recognized as the “universal donor? Type O
20. Which blood type is recognized as the “universal acceptor? Type AB
21. List the possible genotypes for the blood types below.
Type A: IA IA; IA i
Type AB- IA IB
Type B: IB IB; IB i
Type O- i i
22. Which allele for blood type is recessive to all the others? Type O (i)
23. Which allele(s) for blood type is(are) codominant? IA and IB
Fill in the information for each of the disorders in the chart below.
DISORDER
CHARACTERISTICS
(What is it?)
Color blindness
Hemophilia
Huntington disease
Tay Sachs
Sickle-cell anemia
Cannot detect red / green colors
Blood doesn’t clot easily after injury
PKU
Unable to break down phenylalanine
Progressive degeneration; symptoms usually appear at age 35
Build-up of fatty substance in brain; children die before age 5
Defective blood cells, cells become sickle shaped & don’t carry O2
TYPE OF
INHERITANCE
Sex-linked
Sex-linked
Autosomal Dominant
Autosomal Recessive
Autosomal Recessive
Autosomal Recessive
24. What type of disorder is carried on the sex-chromosomes? Sex-linked
25. What type of disorder is caused from the failure of homologous chromosomes to separate normally during meiosis?
Nondisjunction; one gamete gets one extra chromosome; one gamete gets one less chromosome
26. What is Down syndrome and how is it caused? Trisomy 21; 3 copies of chromosome number 21.; caused by
nondisjunction
27. What is an advantage to being heterozygous for sickle-cell anemia? Heterozygotes are resistant to malaria
28. Look at the karyotype. Answer the questions that follow.
a. What is the sex of the person? Male
b. What disorder do they have? Down syndrom
Look at the pedigree chart below. Fill in the genotypes for all of the individuals.
A
Albinism (a)
B
Normal (A)
C
D
G
E
F
H
29. How did individual D inherit the disease? Received 1 recessive allele from each parent Individual H ? Same as D
EVOLUTION
30. Briefly describe Darwin’s theory on the following topics.
a. Natural selection – – the individuals that have the traits that are best suited to the environment survive, reproduce,
and leave offspring for the next generation
b. Competition among species –
all species compete for limited resources such as food, water, living space & mated.
Competition occurs among members of the same species and between members of different species
c. Variation among individuals –
Members within a species have differences in traits (eye color, height, etc.
31. Define the following, and briefly describe how each supports the theory of evolution:
a. homologous structure – similar structures w/ different functions.
EX: bones in the forearm of bats & humans are
same in structure, but have different uses (bats for flying & humans for catching a ball).
b. vestigial organ – Organs that once had a useful purpose that are still present, but in a reduced form.
EX: our
appendix
32. Define mutation and explain how helpful and harmful mutations affect the fitness of an individual as well as the number
of alleles it passes on to future generations. Mutations occur as a result of changes in an organisms DNA. Mutations are
helpful if they aid in an organism’s survival.
Mutations are harmful if they do not aid in their survival
33. Explain how the development of embryos provides evidence to the theory of evolution. Embryos of common
ancestors share common characteristics
34. How is the fossil record used to support the evolution of organisms? How is it used and what information do the different
rock layers provide? Organisms that are closely related develop from common ancestors that share common genes.
Embryos develop common structures because they share common genes.
35. Define the three types of natural selection below, and sketch a graph to illustrate each one.
a. directional selection –
b. disruptive selection -
c. stabilizing selection -
Favors only one trait
Favors both traits; intermediates
Only the intermediates are favored.
(All members of the species have
are not favored (Members
(Long & short tails are selected against)
Long tails. Short tails are not
have long tails or short tails.
Favored.
IMMUNE SYSTEM VIRUSES / AIDS / DISEASES
36. Define the following:
a. virus – a non-living particle
b. vector – an organism that carries a pathogen (mosquitoes carry the West Nile Virus. Mosquitoes are vectors)
c. pathogen – any agent (bacterium, virus, protest, or fungi) that causes an infectious disease
37. How are vectors and pathogen related? Vectors carry pathogens; pathogens depend on vectors to help them find a new
host (EX: Mosquitoes carry the West Nile Virus – the mosquito is the vector & the virus is the pathogen)
38. Explain why viruses are parasites. Viruses depend on a living host cell in order to reproduce
39. Compare the lytic and the lysogenic cycle of viral reproduction. In the lytic cycle, the virus injects its nucleic acid into
the host cell. Virus commands the host cell to produce more virus particles, then the virus erupts from the host cell
destroys (kills) the host cell. In the lysogenic cycle, the virus injects its nucleic acid, the viral nucleic acid becomes
incorporated into the host cell’s DNA (provirus) & is replicated each time the host cell replicates. This created
multiple
copies of the viral genome without destroying the host cell.
&
40. Which body fluids can transmit HIV?
`
What activities transmit HIV?
a. Blood
a. Any type of unprotected sex
b. Semen & Vaginal Fluid
b. sharing used drug needles
c. breast milk
c. Pregnancy-from mother to child
d. pus from sores (pus contains WBC’s)
d. Tattoos /body piercing if equipment is not clean
What is the difference between being HIV positive and having AIDS? Being HIV positive means that you have the HIV
virus but you do not show symptoms; can be HIV positive for up to 10 years. AIDS means that your immune system is
starting to be nonfunctional in protecting you against pathogens & cancers
41. What effect does HIV have on the immune system? ? HIV destroys the Helper T cells (the generals);
these cells are
necessary to make the B ells & memory cells work
42. Briefly describe the inflammatory response in terms of the effects it causes and why. Nonspecific response to a
localized infection; Injured or infected cells cause blood vessels to enlarge so they can leak fluid & WBC’s (this causes
the skin to appear red at injury site; and swelling occurs around infection). Macrophages (large WBC’s) are first to
arrive – they are nonspecific). Fever kills pathogens.
43. What is the role of helper T cells? Of killer T cells? Helper T cells activate Killer T cells.
Killer T cells bind to pathogens
& pierce holes in their cell membrane causing the cells to swell & burst
44. How do antibodies and antigens work together to fight off invaders? Antigens are surface markers on cells & other
molecules. Antibodies are specific & bind to the specific antigens on pathogens. (This is explains why you must
have different antibodies to combat different pathogens.)
45. How do vaccines work to provide permanent immunity? Vaccines contained weakened or killed pathogens.
They are injected into the body. The body’s defense system produces antibodies and memory cells against
them
46. Compare and contrast binary fission and conjugation (what are they, what effect do they have on the offspring
produced, etc.) In binary fission, one cell divides into two genetically identical cells. In conjugation, two cells
transfer genetic information; does not make any additional cells; cells are genetically different
47. What relationship do bacteria and human intestines have? Mutualistic; bacteria get a place to live & eat; produce
vitamins B & K which we use
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
48. What is the function of the endocrine system? Relies on chemical signals (hormones) to regulate body
functions to maintain homeostasis)
49. List the function and gland in which these hormones are produced: adrenaline, human growth hormone, insulin,
thyroxine.
Human Growth Hormone: released by the pituitary gland; stimulates growth of bones, muscles, & other
organs. Thyroxine: released by the thyroid gland; maintains metabolism; regulates rate of oxygen use by
cells. Insulin: released by the pancreas; helps cells take in glucose. Adrenaline: released by the adrenal
glands; increases heart rate & opens up the airways (bronchioles) in the lungs (fight / flight hormone)
50. Briefly explain the negative feedback system involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, and thyroid gland.
When the level of thyroxin is too high, a message is sent to the hypothalamus saying that there is too much
thyroxin in the blood stream. The hypothalamus will signal the thyroid gland to stop releasing thyroxin.
This is referred to as negative feedback. When you are sleeping, you metabolism rate slows down (burn
fewer calories). This is because there is not as great of demand for ATP (and ATP production requires O2).
Thus less thyroxine is needed because thyroxine helps body cells take up O2.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
51. What are the functions of the nervous system? The nervous system has many functions. 1. Major controlling,
regulatory, and communicating system in the body 2. Center of all mental activity including thought,
learning, and memory. 3. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous system is responsible for
regulating & maintaining homeostasis. 4. Responds to internal and external stimuli
52. Define the following: neuron, sensory neuron, motor neuron. Neuron: a nerve cell. Sensory neuron – nerve cell
of the sensory organs that detect stimuli from the environment; motor neuron are attached to effector cells
that cause your muscles to respond to the stimuli detected by sense organs
53. How do sensory and motor neurons work with skin receptors to cause a reflex? Sensory neurons in sense organs
detect the stimuli. The message is sent to the brain or to the reflex arc in the spinal cord. The message is
sent back to the sensory organ by motor neurons which then controls what the muscle will do
54. Describe the function of the following parts of the brain: cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata.
Cerebrum: The center for intelligence and voluntary, conscience activities (I should raise my hand to ask a
question in class.) The cerebellum coordinates and balances the actions of muscles so the body can move
gracefully and efficiently. The medulla oblongata controls involuntary activities such as breathing and heart
rate.
55. How do the central and peripheral nervous systems work together?
The central nervous system relays information, processes information, and analyzes information that is sent
to it from the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system transmits impulses from the sense
organs (sensory division) to the CNS. The motor division, which is also part of the PNS, transmits impulses
from the CNS to the muscles and glands.
SKELETAL / MUSCLE / SKIN
56. List the function of the skeletal system: 1. Supports & gives shape to body 2. Protects internal organs
3. Provides for movement 4. Stores minerals (calcium & magnesium)5. Produces red blood cells in
bone marrow
57. Describe the function of the following parts of a long bone: cartilage, compact bone, spongy bone, bone marrow
compact bone : dense bone on outside; resists mechanical shock; spongy bone: has spaces filled with
bone marrow; fills the middle of bones; gives strength without adding mass; bone marrow: red marrowmakes blood (found in flat bones and at the ends of long bones) yellow marrow- stores fat found in middle
of long bones); Cartilage: found at ends of bones at joints, reduces friction in movable joints
58. List the 3 types of muscle and describe the function and location of each. . Skeletal: movement of body; cardiac:
heart muscle; smooth: line blood vessels & many internal organs; made for endurance of muscle
contractions
59. What is the function of tendons? of ligaments? Tendons: attach muscle to bone & Ligaments: attach bone to
bone
60. List the functions of skin. 1. Barrier against infection and injury; 2. Help regulate body temperature (sweat);
3. Remove waste products from body; 4. Provides protection against ultraviolet radiation; and 5. Largest
Sense organ in the body
CIRCULATORY AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
61. What are the 2 functions of the circulatory system and how does it maintain homeostasis? 1. Transports O2 &
nutrients (sugars, amino acids) to body cells. 2. Transports hormones throughout body 3. Carries
wastes (nitrogen & CO2) away from cells 4. Works with the immune system to protect body against
disease causing pathogens
62. Describe the structure and function for the following blood vessels: artery, vein, capillary, lymphatic vessel.
Artery: carry blood away from the heart; Veins bring blood back to the heart; capillaries; very small vessels
that bring blood cells to body tissues; lymphatic vessels collect fluids that were not collected by circulatory
system and bring the fluids back to the heart. Both veins and lymph vessels contain VALVES to keep the
blood from backing up
63. Describe the structure and function for the following parts of the blood: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets
Plasma: Fluid portion; carries blood cells through blood vessels & regulates osmotic pressure Red Blood
Cells: Carry oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to body cells & waste (nitrogen waste & CO2) away from body
cells White Blood cells: Work with immune system to protect against infection, fights pathogens (bacteria
and viruses) Platelets: Causes blood to clot so that injuries may heal and prevent bacteria from entering
the body
64. DIRECTIONS: Use the following terms to fill in the blanks below: body, left, lungs, oxygen-poor, oxygen-rich,
right.
The right side of the heart is responsible for pulmonary circulation. The blood in this side of the heart is oxygen-poor
because it pumps the blood to the lungs so it can pick up oxygen The left side of the heart is responsible for
systemic circulation. The blood in this side of the heart is oxygen-rich because it pumps the blood to the body so it
can deliver oxygen to the cells.
What is the function atria receive blood back from body and ventricles? Pump blood out of heart
During respiration, cells take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide as waste. This occurs in small sacs of the
lungs called alveoli. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from capillaries
into the lungs. The trachea does not collapse because of the presence of cartilage.
How does the movement of the diaphragm cause inhalation and exhalation?
The diaphragm is a muscular sheet under lungs that moves down as it contracts to bring air into the lung
(INHALATION) Air moves out of lung as diaphragm relaxes and moves upward (EXHALATION)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
65. What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion, where does each one occur, and what
chemicals or enzymes are involved? Mechanical digestion increases the surface area of the food by breaking
it into smaller pieces. Chemical digestion changes the chemical composition of food by breaking it down
from large macromolecules into small monomers.
66. Where is food absorbed into the bloodstream? Small intestines
67. What is the function of the villi in the small intestine? Increases surface are for digestion and nutrient absorption
68. What is peristalsis? Involuntary muscle contractions that are used to push food through digestive system
69. What is the function of the epiglottis? Closes off the trachea when swallowing to prevent choking
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
70. What is urine made of and where is it stored? Urine consists of 92% water. The remainder is salt and urea.
Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until it is released from the body.
71. Explain how the kidney maintains homeostasis, and its effects on the production of urine. Filters wastes
excess water from the blood (forms urine) Filtration involves removing wastes. Re-absorption involves
returning valuable liquids to the blood.
and
72. What is the function of ureters? Tubes connected between kidney & urinary bladder
73. What is the function of the urethra and where is it found? Urine exits body through urethra. Found at the end of
the urinary bladder