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Transcript
Animal Systems Energy exchange Organisms exchange _________________ with their environment ________________________ convert light energy into chemical energy ________________________ acquire energy from organic molecules made by other organisms __________________________________ harvests the chemical energy from food which is stored as ______; this energy is then used for _______ or lost as _________ Metabolic rate Total amount of ___________ and animal uses per unit of __________ Can be determined by measuring the amount of ______________ used or the amount of _______________ given off Range of metabolic rates ______________________: supports only basic life functions ______________________: amount during peak activity ______________________: measured under fasting, resting, stress-free conditions Types of organisms _______________________: animals that generate their own body heat Require more ______________________ than ectotherms Many are ______________________________ (body temperature must be maintained within narrow limits) __________________________: animals that acquire heat from the environment ___________________ relationship between metabolic rate and size The ____________________ the animal, the more calories needed and the ____________________________ the respiration and heart rates Body plans Body ____________ and _____________ affect interactions with the environment Animals need enough ___________________________ in contact with the environment to allow _________________ of materials Adaptations: highly _____________________________ internal surfaces for material exchange, ______________________ system for movement of materials Advantages: avoids _________________, cells are bathed with body fluids to help maintain _______________________________ Regulation of body temperature Heat is exchanged with the environment by: _____________________: direct transfer of heat between the environment and the bodies surface (high temp low temp) _____________________: transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a body surface ______________________________: transfer of energy by EM waves ______________________________: loss of heat from a liquid surface Changing heat exchange rate Heat loss is __________________ by hair, feathers, fat Change in amount of _________________ flowing to the skin __________________________: increases blood flow to the skin so more heat can ______________ the animal ________________________: decreases blood flow to _____________ heat Evaporative cooling Lose water by ___________________ and across skin Panting and ___________________ increase heat loss Behavioral responses Move _______ or _______ of sun _________________________ seasonally Change rate of metabolism ________________ in skeletal muscle activity ___________________ metabolic heat Moving or ________________________ produces heat Hormonal action can increase metabolic rate and production of heat instead of ATP Torpor or ____________________ (decrease in metabolism) conserves energy during ____________ conditions (lack of food, extreme temps, etc) Coordination systems _________________ system: carries high speed messages _________________ system: produces and releases chemical messages; slower speed Both systems are integrated and help maintain _____________________ Both systems are regulated by ________________________________ feedback mechanisms Negative feedback A _________________ in an internal condition is sensed by the brain The brain causes a ______________ of the needed chemical (response) Once ________ of the chemical has been produced, the response ______ Example: ________________________ regulation in mammals Positive feedback A ___________________ in conditions causes the brain to react by ___________________________the change Example: _________________________ Hormones Many endocrine organs have special nerve cells that secrete hormones (___________________________ cells) Hormones work at _____ levels of organization They can act _______________________ ways on different target cells Cells need the _______________ receptors for the hormone to bind; some cells have receptors for __________ different hormones, some for only a ___________ Endocrine system _________________________ aspects of growth, development, metabolism and reproduction 2 types of glands __________________ glands: ductless glands that secrete hormones into _________________________ to move them through the body _____________________ glands: secret chemicals into ___________ that move them to the right location Types of hormones ______________ hormones: ___________ soluble molecules made from cholesterol Produced only by the _____ organs and _________________ glands Enters cells and interacts with _________ to stimulate or inhibit ____________________synthesis ex: androgens, estrogens ____________________ hormones: made from amino acids (1-200) _________________soluble molecules that bind to ________________ on the cell membrane Never _______________ the cell but cause a cascade of events inside the cell Ex: glucagon, insulin Hypothalamus Master control center of the _______________________ system Region of the _______________________ that receives signals and initiates the response Secretions are stored in or regulate the activity of the ____________ gland __________________ hormones: cause pituitary to secrete hormones __________________ hormones: stops pituitary from releasing hormones Pituitary gland Extension of the brain located at the base of the __________________ Has 2 lobes and many functions __________________ pituitary: synthesizes and releases hormones into the blood ___________________ pituitary: stores and secretes peptide hormones made by the hypothalamus The Nervous System Sensory _____________________ receives signals (____________) from the outside world and send them to the brain along a _____________ neuron The ________________ interprets the signals (__________________) A _____________________ is sent from the brain to the target organ along a ____________________ neuron Neuron structure __________________: contains the nucleus; main part of the neuron __________________: many extension that receive stimulus and send it to the cell body __________: single extension from the cell body; carries impulse away from cell body __________________: gap between axon of one neuron and a dendrite of another _________: cells that support neurons, provide nutrients and remove waste _____________________: layers of insulating cells (Schwann cells) that wrap around large axons ______________________: gaps between the Schwann cells Neurons are organized into _________________ or nuclei Parts of the nervous system ___________________________________: brain and spinal cord; connects sensory and motor mechanisms with interneurons ___________________________________: sensory and motor neurons; carries stimuli from the external environment and monitors the status of the internal environment Central Nervous System _______________ : receives information from the PNS and sends out motor commands for movement, ___________: integrates various functions of the entire body both are covered with protective layers called ________________ and are surrounded by ___________________________________ Peripheral Nervous System consists of 2 parts: -the _________________ nervous system carries signals to skeletal muscles (voluntary actions and reflexes) -the _________________ nervous system controls involuntary functions such as heart contractions, digestion, breathing, etc -further divided into _______________________and __________________________________ systems— antagonistic systems that maintain homeostasis Membrane potential ____________________________ (unequal charge) arises from different ________concentrations inside and outside the cells -_________ ions are found mostly outside cells -________ ions are mostly inside with large anions (proteins, sulfates, phosphates) -large anions can only cross the membrane through __________________ or using _____________________________ K+ ions are pumped _________the cell and Na+ ions are pumped ______ K+ ions can diffuse out of the cell more easily than Na+ because they are ________________ Gives cells a ___________________(charge) of -70 mV Transmission of impulses Impulses travel through a nerve cell by creating an __________________ Stimulation causes the membrane of a neuron to open the ____________ channels allowing Na+ ions to rush _____________the cell This causes the local area of the neuron to become ________________ charged ____________________________ _________________________causes the Na+ ion channels to ________ and the K+ channels to _________________ Diffusion of K+ ions out _____________________the cell (necessary before _______________impulse can be carried down the neuron) Depolarization of one area causes ___________________ of the next area so the nerve impulse continues ______________the neuron Wave of depolarization only moves in ___ direction from the dendrites to the cell body to the axon Original stimulation must be above _______________level in order for an impulse to be started ________________________ Transmission of impulses between neurons Communication between cells occurs at __________________(gap between _________and neighboring ____________________ Pre-synaptic cells contain synaptic vesicles which contain ___________________________________ -action potential reaching the end of an _________triggers release of neurotransmitter into _______________ the neurotransmitter diffuses to the __________________________ where they bind to ____________ molecules which starts the _____________________ potential on this neuron the neurotransmitter is degraded and the components are recycled this system allows the transmission of signals in __ direction only from _____________________________________ Gas exchange All organisms need to exchange gasses with their environment Plants need _________for photosynthesis and produce ________ Animals need ___________ for cellular respiration and produce ______ Gas exchange in heterotrophs Gas has to __________________in the fluid that covers the respiratory surface so it can _____________ across the membrane Surface area has to be _____________ enough to exchange gasses for the entire organism Lower organisms In unicellular organisms (bacteria, protozoans) gasses diffuse across the _________________ of the entire organism In sponges, cnidarians, and flatworms, each _____ is in contact with the outside environment and __________________ takes place across the membrane of all body cells Higher animals In 3-D animals most cells _____________ in contact with the environment so the respiratory surface needs to be __________ with a rich blood supply Frogs and earthworms can use their entire __________ as a respiratory surface but they must live in _________ places so the gasses can dissolve Other types of animals need extensively branched or folded areas like __________________________________________________ Fish Water has _________ oxygen than air so fish must ventilate their gills (move water over the surface) Blood in the gill capillaries flows in the _____________________ direction of water movement—called countercurrent flow—which ________________ the concentration gradient so gasses diffuse across the entire surface Insects Use ______________________ (tiny air tubes that branch throughout the insects body) Air enters through _____________________ and diffuses through the branches which extend to the surface of nearly every cell Mammalian respiratory systems Nostrils _________________________________________________ Pharynx _________________________________________________ Glottis __________________________________________________ Larynx __________________________________________________ Trachea _________________________________________________ Bronchi __________________________________________________ Bronchioles _______________________________________________ Alveoli __________________________________________________ Capillaries _______________________________________________ Alveoli are covered by ____________________________________ Oxygen __________________ in the fluid lining the alveoli and diffuses __________ the capillaries Carbon dioxide diffuses from the ___________ into the ___________ Lung ventilation Negative pressure breathing The thoracic cavity ___________________ making the pressure inside the lungs _____________ than that of the atmosphere; causes air to enter the lungs The diaphragm and rib muscles ______________ to expand the thoracic cavity When the muscles relax air is ______________________ Control of breathing Breathing centers of the brain: _____________________________ Control based mostly on ______________ concentration of the blood Monitors blood pH—pH ________________ as carbon dioxide concentration increases; breathing rate then __________________ to excrete excess ___________________ and increase pH back to normal Circulatory system Functions: ________________________ gasses and wastes Helps maintain ___________________________ Contains ________________________ system cells Transports __________________________ The mammalian heart Surrounded by a sac called the ________________________ Made mostly of cardiac muscle; looks striped (striated) because of alternating bands of ___________________________________ __________________ collect blood returning to the heart __________________ pump blood out of the heart __________________ prevent blood from flowing backwards __________________ separates the right and left sides Blood vessels ______________________ carry blood away from the heart Have strong ________________ walls to withstand pressure __________________ carry blood toward the heart Have _________________ to prevent backward flow of blood ________________________ connect the arteries and veins Site of gas and material ________________________ Capillary _____________ are in each organ Cardiac cycle Complete sequence of ________________________ (systole) and _____________________________ (diastole) Controlled by the ______ node (pacemaker) located in upper right atrium Signal from the S-A node causes the ______________ to contract and reaches the A-V node After .1 seconds, the A-V node sends the signal for the _____________________ to contract Capillaries and lymph Blood ______________________ pushes fluid out of small holes in the capillaries into the tissues of the body ______________________ vessels pick up this fluid by diffusion and transport it to the superior vena cava where it re-enters the circulatory system Blood components Humans have ___________ L of blood; 45% cells, 55% fluid _________________________: the fluid component of blood 90% ________________ ____________________________ --dissolved ions that maintain osmotic balance and buffer the blood ______________________ –help buffer blood, maintain osmotic balance, immunoglobulins, fibrinogen Blood cells _______________________ (red blood cells) Transport __________________ using hemoglobin Live __________ months Don’t contain _______________ __________________________ (white blood cells) 5 different types which function as the bodies ____________ system __________________ Cell fragments that function in blood clotting Excretory (Urinary) system Functions: Excrete _______________ compounds (produced by ____________ metabolism) Regulate ________ concentration Maintain ______________ balance Water gain and loss ___________________ through: absorption from the gut, by-product of metabolism, secretion from cells, cellular respiration _______________ through: urinary excretion, evaporation from lungs and skin, sweating, elimination in feces Structures 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, 1 bladder, 1 urethra Nephrons Nephrons are the _____________________ units of the kidney Each kidney contains more than ____________________ nephrons They filter 1.5 L of blood per minute and return all but ______ to the blood stream Parts__________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Urine production ___ processes produce urine _________________________of body fluids from the glomerulus into the nephron produces ___________________ The filtrate is then ______________________ ____________________of solutes into the filtrate in the proximal and distal tubule _____________________________ of solutes back into the blood in all tubular parts of the nephron Pathway of urine production Blood enters the kidney through the _________________________ In the ____________________________ blood pressure forces fluid from the capillaries into ____________________________; fluid contains water, salts, urea, glucose, and other small molecules; large molecules are _____________________ from leaving the blood stream Filtrate enters the ______________________________________ Here __________________________________________ transport moves selected particles into the filtrate As the filtrate moves through the loop of Henle and the distal tubule ________________________________ of molecules (water, sugar, organic nutrients, vitamins, etc) _____ the blood stream occurs Filtered blood leaves the kidneys through the ___________________, the filtrate, now _____________________ moves through the ureters to the urinary bladder Urine Contains the various wastes formed by the breakdown of _____________ molecules -Ammonia from is converted to ___________in the liver -____________________________ breakdown products -Drug and food additives ____________________ L of blood flow through the kidneys daily _________L of filtrate is processed per day _________ L of urine is produced Types of nitrogen wastes _________________________: most toxic; needs the most water to excrete; produced by organisms that live in water (_________________) __________: less toxic; requires less water to excrete; produced by organisms that live in temperate land environments (____________) ___________________: least toxic; requires little water to excrete; produced by organisms that live in arid environments (________________) Control of urine formation Controlled by __________ (anti-diuretic hormone) Cells in the tubules and collecting ducts have _______________ for ADH If the hypothalamus detects a _______ in blood volume, ADH is secreted, making the tubules _________________________ to water and making the urine more concentrated If there is __________________ water, ADH decreases making the tubules _________________________ so urine becomes more dilute Structures in the Immune system Lymph vessels and nodes _____________________________________ Spleen __________________________________________________ Tonsils __________________________________________________ Bone marrow ______________________________________________ Thymus gland _____________________________________________ Lymphocytes/leukocytes _____________________________________ Non-specific immunity 1st line of defense: _________________________________________ Forms a protective __________________ against all types of __________________________ (disease causing agents) Cilia, mucous, tears, saliva, enzymes are ___________ layers of protection nd 2 line of defense: _____________________________________ Injured cells release ________________________ which causes capillaries to _________ and ________ fluids ____________________________________ also move out of capillaries to the site of injury and attack _________________ Local temperature rises to slow down pathogen _____________________ Specific immunity Recognizes and destroys a ______________________ pathogen Pathogens are recognized by their _______________—”flags” that stick out of their cell membrane Causes an _____________________ response which uses the white blood cells and lymphatic system to fight the invader Types of lymphocytes _______________: mature in bone marrow and produce antibodies (proteins that attach to antigens) _______________: mature in the thymus gland _________________________: kill infected host cells ____________________________: work with B cells to make antibodies; target of the AIDS virus ______________________________: turn off B cells as the infection is brought under control ___________________________: engulf and disassemble pathogens Antibodies B cells make _____________________ in response to ______________ Antibodies are ________________ chains, most of which are the same— ______________________ regions At the ends are _______________________ regions—areas that change to fit the antigen of a specific invader like a lock and key Some antibodies stick out of B cell ______________________ while others are released directly into the __________________________ Each antibody can hold onto ________________________ pathogen, causing them to clump together, which makes them easier to engulf You need __________ of different antibodies because there are ___________ of different antigens Cell mediated response This is a response to ___________________________ pathogens _________________________ cells attack the infected host cell _______________________ stimulate B cells to make antibodies Antibody mediated response Once the antibody and antigen have combined on a B cell it becomes __________________________ and produces 2 kinds of cells ___________________ produce 1000’s of antibody cells per second and move to the sight of infection ______________________________: remain in your body long after exposure which gives you __________________ to the disease on subsequent exposures Auto-immune diseases __________________________system helps your immune system recognize ____________ cells so they are not attacked and destroyed In auto-immune diseases ____ cells are produced that ______ your cells Lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, scleroderma Allergies Are caused by ____________________________ to antigens Antibodies combine with skin and mucous membranes and mast cells that release large quantities of _________________________ and other compounds that cause the allergic reaction Vaccines Solutions made from weakened or dead _________________ or their antigens Causes _________________________ to form without making you sick Production of antibodies gives you __________________ immunity; can last for the rest of your life Being given antibodies produced by someone else gives you ______________________ immunity; only lasts a short time