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Animal Systems
Energy exchange
Organisms exchange _________________ with their environment
________________________ convert light energy into chemical energy
________________________ acquire energy from organic molecules
made by other organisms
__________________________________ harvests the chemical energy
from food which is stored as ______; this energy is then used for _______
or lost as _________
Metabolic rate
Total amount of ___________ and animal uses per unit of __________
Can be determined by measuring the amount of ______________ used or
the amount of _______________ given off
Range of metabolic rates
______________________: supports only basic life functions
______________________: amount during peak activity
______________________: measured under fasting, resting, stress-free
conditions
Types of organisms
_______________________: animals that generate their own body heat
Require more ______________________ than ectotherms
Many are ______________________________ (body temperature must
be maintained within narrow limits)
__________________________: animals that acquire heat from the
environment
___________________ relationship between metabolic rate and size
The ____________________ the animal, the more calories needed and
the ____________________________ the respiration and heart rates
Body plans
Body ____________ and _____________ affect interactions with the
environment
Animals need enough ___________________________ in contact with
the environment to allow _________________ of materials
Adaptations: highly _____________________________ internal
surfaces for material exchange, ______________________ system for
movement of materials
Advantages: avoids _________________, cells are bathed with body
fluids to help maintain _______________________________
Regulation of body temperature
Heat is exchanged with the environment by:
_____________________: direct transfer of heat between the
environment and the bodies surface (high temp low temp)
_____________________: transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid
past a body surface
______________________________: transfer of energy by EM waves
______________________________: loss of heat from a liquid surface
Changing heat exchange rate
Heat loss is __________________ by hair, feathers, fat
Change in amount of _________________ flowing to the skin
__________________________: increases blood flow to the skin so
more heat can ______________ the animal
________________________: decreases blood flow to _____________
heat
Evaporative cooling
Lose water by ___________________ and across skin
Panting and ___________________ increase heat loss
Behavioral responses
Move _______ or _______ of sun
_________________________ seasonally
Change rate of metabolism
________________ in skeletal muscle activity ___________________
metabolic heat
Moving or ________________________ produces heat
Hormonal action can increase metabolic rate and production of heat instead
of ATP
Torpor or ____________________ (decrease in metabolism) conserves
energy during ____________ conditions (lack of food, extreme temps, etc)
Coordination systems
_________________ system: carries high speed messages
_________________ system: produces and releases chemical messages;
slower speed
Both systems are integrated and help maintain _____________________
Both systems are regulated by ________________________________
feedback mechanisms
Negative feedback
A _________________ in an internal condition is sensed by the brain
The brain causes a ______________ of the needed chemical (response)
Once ________ of the chemical has been produced, the response ______
Example: ________________________ regulation in mammals
Positive feedback
A ___________________ in conditions causes the brain to react by
___________________________the change
Example: _________________________
Hormones
Many endocrine organs have special nerve cells that secrete hormones
(___________________________ cells)
Hormones work at _____ levels of organization
They can act _______________________ ways on different target cells
Cells need the _______________ receptors for the hormone to bind;
some cells have receptors for __________ different hormones, some for
only a ___________
Endocrine system _________________________ aspects of growth,
development, metabolism and reproduction
2 types of glands
__________________ glands: ductless glands that secrete hormones into
_________________________ to move them through the body
_____________________ glands: secret chemicals into ___________
that move them to the right location
Types of hormones
______________ hormones: ___________ soluble molecules made from
cholesterol
Produced only by the _____ organs and _________________ glands
Enters cells and interacts with _________ to stimulate or inhibit
____________________synthesis
ex: androgens, estrogens
____________________ hormones: made from amino acids (1-200)
_________________soluble molecules that bind to ________________
on the cell membrane
Never _______________ the cell but cause a cascade of events inside
the cell
Ex: glucagon, insulin
Hypothalamus
Master control center of the _______________________ system
Region
of the _______________________ that receives signals and
initiates the response
Secretions are stored in or regulate the activity of the ____________
gland
__________________ hormones: cause pituitary to secrete hormones
__________________ hormones: stops pituitary from releasing hormones
Pituitary gland
Extension of the brain located at the base of the __________________
Has 2 lobes and many functions
__________________ pituitary: synthesizes and releases hormones into
the blood
___________________ pituitary: stores and secretes peptide hormones
made by the hypothalamus
The Nervous System
Sensory _____________________ receives signals (____________)
from the outside world and send them to the brain along a _____________
neuron
The ________________ interprets the signals (__________________)
A _____________________ is sent from the brain to the target organ
along a ____________________ neuron
Neuron structure
__________________: contains the nucleus; main part of the neuron
__________________: many extension that receive stimulus and send it
to the cell body
__________: single extension from the cell body; carries impulse away
from cell body
__________________: gap between axon of one neuron and a dendrite of
another
_________: cells that support neurons, provide nutrients and remove
waste
_____________________: layers of insulating cells (Schwann cells) that
wrap around large axons
______________________: gaps between the Schwann cells
Neurons are organized into _________________ or nuclei
Parts of the nervous system
___________________________________: brain and spinal cord;
connects sensory and motor mechanisms with interneurons
___________________________________: sensory and motor
neurons; carries stimuli from the external environment and monitors the
status of the internal environment
Central Nervous System
_______________ : receives information from the PNS and sends out
motor commands for movement,
___________: integrates various functions of the entire body
both are covered with protective layers called ________________ and
are surrounded by ___________________________________
Peripheral Nervous System
 consists of 2 parts:
-the _________________ nervous system carries signals to skeletal
muscles (voluntary actions and reflexes)
-the _________________ nervous system controls involuntary
functions such as heart contractions, digestion, breathing, etc
-further divided into _______________________and
__________________________________ systems—
antagonistic systems that maintain homeostasis
Membrane potential
____________________________ (unequal charge) arises from
different ________concentrations inside and outside the cells
-_________ ions are found mostly outside cells
-________ ions are mostly inside with large anions (proteins, sulfates,
phosphates)
-large anions can only cross the membrane through __________________
or using _____________________________
K+ ions are pumped _________the cell and Na+ ions are pumped ______
K+ ions can diffuse out of the cell more easily than Na+ because they are
________________
Gives cells a ___________________(charge) of -70 mV
Transmission of impulses
Impulses travel through a nerve cell by creating an __________________
Stimulation causes the membrane of a neuron to open the ____________
channels allowing Na+ ions to rush _____________the cell
This causes the local area of the neuron to become ________________
charged ____________________________
_________________________causes the Na+ ion channels to ________
and the K+ channels to _________________
Diffusion
of K+ ions out _____________________the cell (necessary
before _______________impulse can be carried down the neuron)
Depolarization of one area causes ___________________ of the next
area so the nerve impulse continues ______________the neuron
Wave of depolarization only moves in ___ direction from the dendrites to
the cell body to the axon
Original stimulation must be above _______________level in order for an
impulse to be started ________________________
Transmission of impulses between neurons
Communication between cells occurs at __________________(gap
between _________and neighboring ____________________
Pre-synaptic cells contain synaptic vesicles which contain
___________________________________
-action potential reaching the end of an _________triggers release of
neurotransmitter into _______________
 the neurotransmitter diffuses to the __________________________
where they bind to ____________ molecules which starts the
_____________________ potential on this neuron
the neurotransmitter is degraded and the components are recycled
this system allows the transmission of signals in __ direction only from
_____________________________________
Gas exchange
All organisms need to exchange gasses with their environment
Plants need _________for photosynthesis and produce ________
Animals need ___________ for cellular respiration and produce ______
Gas exchange in heterotrophs
Gas has to __________________in the fluid that covers the respiratory
surface so it can _____________ across the membrane
Surface area has to be _____________ enough to exchange gasses for
the entire organism
Lower organisms
In unicellular organisms (bacteria, protozoans) gasses diffuse across the
_________________ of the entire organism
In sponges, cnidarians, and flatworms, each _____ is in contact with the
outside environment and __________________ takes place across the
membrane of all body cells
Higher animals
In
3-D animals most cells _____________ in contact with the environment
so the respiratory surface needs to be __________ with a rich blood supply
Frogs and earthworms can use their entire __________ as a respiratory
surface but they must live in _________ places so the gasses can dissolve
Other types of animals need extensively branched or folded areas like
__________________________________________________
Fish
Water has _________ oxygen than air so fish must ventilate their gills
(move water over the surface)
Blood in the gill capillaries flows in the _____________________
direction of water movement—called countercurrent flow—which
________________ the concentration gradient so gasses diffuse across
the entire surface
Insects
Use ______________________ (tiny air tubes that branch throughout
the insects body)
Air enters through _____________________ and diffuses through the
branches which extend to the surface of nearly every cell
Mammalian respiratory systems
Nostrils _________________________________________________
Pharynx _________________________________________________
Glottis __________________________________________________
Larynx __________________________________________________
Trachea _________________________________________________
Bronchi __________________________________________________
Bronchioles _______________________________________________
Alveoli __________________________________________________
Capillaries _______________________________________________
Alveoli are covered by ____________________________________
Oxygen __________________ in the fluid lining the alveoli and diffuses
__________ the capillaries
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the ___________ into the ___________
Lung ventilation
Negative pressure breathing
The thoracic cavity ___________________ making the pressure inside
the lungs _____________ than that of the atmosphere; causes air to enter
the lungs
The diaphragm and rib muscles ______________ to expand the thoracic
cavity
When the muscles relax air is ______________________
Control of breathing
Breathing centers of the brain: _____________________________
Control based mostly on ______________ concentration of the blood
Monitors blood pH—pH ________________ as carbon dioxide
concentration increases; breathing rate then __________________ to
excrete excess ___________________ and increase pH back to normal
Circulatory system
Functions:
________________________ gasses and wastes
Helps maintain ___________________________
Contains ________________________ system cells
Transports __________________________
The mammalian heart
Surrounded by a sac called the ________________________
Made mostly of cardiac muscle; looks striped (striated) because of
alternating bands of ___________________________________
__________________ collect blood returning to the heart
__________________ pump blood out of the heart
__________________ prevent blood from flowing backwards
__________________ separates the right and left sides
Blood vessels
______________________ carry blood away from the heart
Have strong ________________ walls to withstand pressure
__________________ carry blood toward the heart
Have _________________ to prevent backward flow of blood
________________________ connect the arteries and veins
Site of gas and material ________________________
Capillary _____________ are in each organ
Cardiac cycle
Complete sequence of ________________________ (systole) and
_____________________________ (diastole)
Controlled by the ______ node (pacemaker) located in upper right atrium
Signal from the S-A node causes the ______________ to contract and
reaches the A-V node
After .1 seconds, the A-V node sends the signal for the
_____________________ to contract
Capillaries and lymph
Blood ______________________ pushes fluid out of small holes in the
capillaries into the tissues of the body
______________________ vessels pick up this fluid by diffusion and
transport it to the superior vena cava where it re-enters the circulatory
system
Blood components
Humans have ___________ L of blood; 45% cells, 55% fluid
_________________________: the fluid component of blood
90% ________________
____________________________ --dissolved ions that maintain
osmotic balance and buffer the blood
______________________ –help buffer blood, maintain osmotic balance,
immunoglobulins, fibrinogen
Blood cells
_______________________ (red blood cells)
Transport __________________ using hemoglobin
Live __________ months
Don’t contain _______________
__________________________ (white blood cells)
5 different types which function as the bodies ____________ system
__________________
Cell fragments that function in blood clotting
Excretory (Urinary) system
Functions:
Excrete _______________ compounds (produced by ____________
metabolism)
Regulate ________ concentration
Maintain ______________ balance
Water gain and loss
___________________ through: absorption from the gut, by-product of
metabolism, secretion from cells, cellular respiration
_______________ through: urinary excretion, evaporation from lungs and
skin, sweating, elimination in feces
Structures
2 kidneys, 2 ureters, 1 bladder, 1 urethra
Nephrons
Nephrons are the _____________________ units of the kidney
Each kidney contains more than ____________________ nephrons
They filter 1.5 L of blood per minute and return all but ______ to the
blood stream
Parts__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Urine production
___ processes produce urine
_________________________of body fluids from the glomerulus into
the nephron produces ___________________
The filtrate is then ______________________
____________________of solutes into the filtrate in the proximal and
distal tubule
_____________________________ of solutes back into the blood in all
tubular parts of the nephron
Pathway of urine production
Blood enters the kidney through the _________________________
In the ____________________________ blood pressure forces fluid
from the capillaries into ____________________________; fluid
contains water, salts, urea, glucose, and other small molecules; large
molecules are _____________________ from leaving the blood stream
Filtrate enters the ______________________________________
Here __________________________________________ transport
moves selected particles into the filtrate
As the filtrate moves through the loop of Henle and the distal tubule
________________________________ of molecules (water, sugar,
organic nutrients, vitamins, etc) _____ the blood stream occurs
Filtered blood leaves the kidneys through the ___________________,
the filtrate, now _____________________ moves through the ureters to
the urinary bladder
Urine
Contains the various wastes formed by the breakdown of _____________
molecules
-Ammonia from is converted to ___________in the liver
-____________________________ breakdown products
-Drug and food additives
____________________ L of blood flow through the kidneys daily
_________L
of filtrate is processed per day
_________ L of urine is produced
Types of nitrogen wastes
_________________________: most toxic; needs the most water to
excrete; produced by organisms that live in water (_________________)
__________: less toxic; requires less water to excrete; produced by
organisms that live in temperate land environments (____________)
___________________: least toxic; requires little water to excrete;
produced by organisms that live in arid environments (________________)
Control of urine formation
Controlled by __________ (anti-diuretic hormone)
Cells in the tubules and collecting ducts have _______________ for ADH
If the hypothalamus detects a _______ in blood volume, ADH is secreted,
making the tubules _________________________ to water and making
the urine more concentrated
If there is __________________ water, ADH decreases making the
tubules _________________________ so urine becomes more dilute
Structures in the Immune system
Lymph vessels and nodes _____________________________________
Spleen __________________________________________________
Tonsils __________________________________________________
Bone marrow ______________________________________________
Thymus gland _____________________________________________
Lymphocytes/leukocytes _____________________________________
Non-specific immunity
1st line of defense: _________________________________________
Forms a protective __________________ against all types of
__________________________ (disease causing agents)
Cilia, mucous, tears, saliva, enzymes are ___________ layers of protection
nd
2 line of defense: _____________________________________
Injured cells release ________________________ which causes
capillaries to _________ and ________ fluids
____________________________________ also move out of
capillaries to the site of injury and attack _________________
Local temperature rises to slow down pathogen _____________________
Specific immunity
Recognizes and destroys a ______________________ pathogen
Pathogens are recognized by their _______________—”flags” that stick
out of their cell membrane
Causes an _____________________ response which uses the white blood
cells and lymphatic system to fight the invader
Types of lymphocytes
_______________: mature in bone marrow and produce antibodies
(proteins that attach to antigens)
_______________: mature in the thymus gland
_________________________: kill infected host cells
____________________________: work with B cells to make antibodies;
target of the AIDS virus
______________________________: turn off B cells as the infection is
brought under control
___________________________: engulf and disassemble pathogens
Antibodies
B cells make _____________________ in response to ______________
Antibodies are ________________ chains, most of which are the same—
______________________ regions
At the ends are _______________________ regions—areas that change
to fit the antigen of a specific invader like a lock and key
Some antibodies stick out of B cell ______________________ while
others are released directly into the __________________________
Each antibody can hold onto ________________________ pathogen,
causing them to clump together, which makes them easier to engulf
You need __________ of different antibodies because there are
___________ of different antigens
Cell mediated response
This is a response to ___________________________ pathogens
_________________________ cells attack the infected host cell
_______________________ stimulate B cells to make antibodies
Antibody mediated response
Once the antibody and antigen have combined on a B cell it becomes
__________________________ and produces 2 kinds of cells
___________________ produce 1000’s of antibody cells per second and
move to the sight of infection
______________________________: remain in your body long after
exposure which gives you __________________ to the disease on
subsequent exposures
Auto-immune diseases
__________________________system helps your immune system
recognize ____________ cells so they are not attacked and destroyed
In auto-immune diseases ____ cells are produced that ______ your cells
Lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, scleroderma
Allergies
Are caused by ____________________________ to antigens
Antibodies combine with skin and mucous membranes and mast cells that
release large quantities of _________________________ and other
compounds that cause the allergic reaction
Vaccines
Solutions made from weakened or dead _________________ or their
antigens
Causes _________________________ to form without making you sick
Production of antibodies gives you __________________ immunity; can
last for the rest of your life
Being given antibodies produced by someone else gives you
______________________ immunity; only lasts a short time