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Post-Classical Era 500-1000 CE (Unit 3) [CHAPTER 14 : ] The Expansive Realm of Islam I ARABIA AT THE TIME OF MUHAMMAD Geography - Arabian peninsula mostly desert - Agriculture possible only in well-watered area o Yemen in S o Medina & other oasis towns Bedouins - Nomadic herders o Sheep, goats, camels - Organized in family clans o Depend heavily on kinship networks o Life & death depend on relationship due to harsh environment o Strong sense of loyalty to clans o Guard common interests o Clan identities survive centuries after Islam Religion - Home to diverse religions & cultures o Many Jewish merchants in Arabia o Many converted to Christianity by time of Muhammad - Polytheistic o Gods, goddesses, demons, nature spirits o Seek favor through prayers & sacrifice Trade - Prominent in long distance trade - After 200s Arabia increasingly important link in maritime trade o China & India – E o Persia & Byzantine – W - Fall of classical empires make overland travel insecure – overseas travel increase - Mecca – important passing city for trade FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAM Syncretism - Islam reflect influence of Jewish & Christian faiths - Muslim society reflect nomadic/mercantile Arabia - New Islamic society reflect blend of Arab, Persian, Greek & Indian societies Key Terms o Islam – submission o Muslim – one who has submitted o Dar al-Islam – house of Islam Muhammad ibn Abdullah (570-632 CE) - Background o Reputable family of merchants in Mecca o Difficult early life - orphaned at 6 – cared by uncle & grandfather o 595 CE married Khadija – wealthy widow Gain prominence through marriage but did not enter ranks of elite o Age 30 establish himself as merchant o - - - - Exposed to diverse cultures & religions Basic knowledge of Judaism & Christianity Dealt w/Jewish/Christian merchant Spiritual Transformation (610 CE) o Age 40 profound spiritual experience – visions from the only one true deity (Allah) delivered through the archangel Gabriel (messenger of God of the Jews/Christians) o Instruct him to spread his faith to others o Deeply influenced by Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism o Allah Ruled the universe Idolatry as sin God judge the world Reward the righteous Punish the wicked o 620 zealous group join in spread of Islam Quran (650s BCE) o Holy book of Islam o Muhammad’s oral transmission of revelations from visions o 650s followers prepare written text o Magnificent poetry and song o Muhammad’s understanding of Allah and his relation to world o Definitive authority for Islamic religious doctrine & social organization o Muslims regard Arabic text of Quran as only definitive & reliable scripture – translations not as powerful Other Literature o Several other sources of moral/religious guidance o Hadith Sayings attributed to Muhammad Accounts of the prophet’s deeds 800s-1000s several collections appear – scholars use as guides for interpretation of the Quran o Less authoritative documents Social legal customs Biographies of Muhammad Pious commentaries on the Quran Conflict at Mecca o Mecca leading city in Arabia and home to Muhammad o Growing popularity of Muhammad led to conflict with elites at Mecca - Religious issues o Muhammad’s insistence on Allah as only divine power – disparage long-existing deities 1 Post-Classical Era 500-1000 CE (Unit 3) [CHAPTER 14 : ] The Expansive Realm of Islam I - - - - Many Arab elite polytheistic – see him as offensive and dangerous o Muhammad denounce greed as moral wickedness that Allah will punish Ruling elites were the wealthiest merchants o Attack on idolatry – economic threat to those who owned & profited from many shrines that attracted merchants Ka’ba – best known of shrines – lg. black rock – supposed dwelling place of powerful deity – housed in cube-shaped building – drew wealth to Mecca Muhammad’s relentless condemnation led to his persecution and of his followers Hijra – “migration” o Persecution so great his followers flee to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) o Muhammad remain in Mecca until 622 – fled to Yathrib (called it Medina) o Muhammad’s flight to Medina serves as starting point of the official Islamic calendar Umma – “community of the faithful” o Muhammad organize followers into cohesive community called umma o Concentrate on moral & religious dimensions of Islam o Guided practical & spiritual affairs o Provide legal & social code o Led umma in daily prayers o Led battles w/ enemies in Medina, Mecca and other places o Look after economic welfare of the umma Organize commercial ventures Raid against caravans from Mecca o Relief for widows, orphans and poor “Seal of the Prophets” o Muhammad’s understanding of his religious mission expanded in Medina o Refer to himself as final prophet through whom Allah reveal his message to mankind o Accept authority of Jewish & Christian prophets (Abraham, Moses, Jesus…) – held Old & New Testament in high esteem o Allah same monotheistic God of the Jews & Christians - but reveal more complete revelation to Muhammad than Jews or Christians Conquest of Arabia o 629 pilgrimage to Ka’ba o 630 attack Mecca & conquer city o Force elites to adopt Islam o Impose government dedicated to Allah o Conquest of other towns & Bedouin clans o - - - Campaign - most of Arabia under Islamic control o Mosques Destroy pagan shrines and replace w/ mosques Buildings instill sense of sacredness and community where Muslims gather for prayer o Ka’ba Deny Ka’ba was home of deity Preserve black rock as symbol of Mecca’s greatness Allow only faithful to approach shrine 632 Muhammad makes first Islamic pilgrimage to Ka’ba – establish hajj as an example The Five Pillars of Islam o Allah as only god, Muhammad his prophet o Daily prayer to Allah facing Mecca o Fast in daylight hours of month of Ramadan o Alms for weak and poor o Hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca Sharia o Islamic holy law – civil & criminal o Provide cultural unity in diverse lands o Centuries after Muhammad o Guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life o Elaborated by jurists & legal scholars o Inspired by Quran o Quran & Sharia establish religious doctrine complete w/ social & ethical values Jihad (“struggle”) o Some Muslims take jihad as additional obligation for the faithful o Understood in various ways o Impose spiritual and moral obligations on Muslims to combat vice and evil o Struggle against ignorance and unbelief by spreading Islam & seek converts o Some circumstances involve physical struggle – sword & wage war against unbelievers threat against Islam 2 Post-Classical Era 500-1000 CE (Unit 3) [CHAPTER 14 : ] The Expansive Realm of Islam I EXPANSION OF ISLAM Muhammad’s Death - No provisions for a successor - Seal of the prophets – possibility of another prophet inconceivable - Serious division within umma about successor - Many towns & Bedouin clans renounce new faith Abu Bakr - Muhammad’s closest friend & devoted disciple - Caliph (“deputy”) o Led umma not as prophets but as lieutenants or subs for Muhammad o Head of state, chief judge, religious leader and military commander o Offensive against towns & clans that renounced Islam o Compel them to recognize Islam and rule of caliph within a year Military Expansion - Much less powerful than Sasanids or Byzantium but effective because: o Unified state under Islam o Attack when empires exhausted from wars o Attack during uprisings from overtaxed peasants and oppressed ethnic/religious - Sasanid Empire of Persia o 633-637 take Mesopotamia o 651 end Sasanid dynasty o Adopt Persian govt. & finance o Literature, science, religion - Parts of Byzantine Empire o 633-637 take Syria and Palestine o 640s take Egypt & N Africa - India o 711 NW Hindu kingdom of Sind - W Europe o 711-718 NW Africa, Strait of Gibraltar, most of Iberia, threaten Franks in Gaul - Mid 700s o C Asian to the east o NW Africa/Iberia to the west Problems of Expansion - Rapid expansion cause problems w/ administration - Caliphs o Most powerful Arab clans appoint first 4 o Ambition, personal difference, clan loyalties complicate deliberations o Rise of Factions - Sunni (“traditionalists”) o Faction of Islamic faith observed by the majority of Muslims - Shia (“party”) o Most important & enduring alternative to faith observed by majority (Sunni) o o o Shia sect rise over disagreements in succession Ali Sect originate in support of Ali for appointment to caliph Cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad Support for Abu Bakr stronger 656-661 serve briefly as caliph but assassinated & killed relatives Shia Distinction Enemies impose own candidate for caliph Shia sect furiously resist & try to restore caliphate to line of Ali Persecuted but survived Strengthen identity by adopting doctrines & rituals different from Sunnis Observe holy days honoring leaders & martyrs to their cause Taught descendants of Ali were infallible, sinless, divinely appointed to rule Advance interpretations of Quran to support party’s views Serve as support for thos who oppose Sunni policies UMAYYAD DYNASTY (661-750 CE) Politics - Assassination of Ali temporarily solve problem of succession - Umayyads most prominent of Meccan merchant clan - Reputation & network of alliances bring stability - Capital at Damascus o Established despite association w/ Mecca o Central location enable better communication - Impose tightly centralized military rule - Continued military expansion – conquering dynasty Decline - Policy of elites o Policies reflect & favor Arab military aristocracy o Appoint members of elite as governors & admin. of conquered lands o Distribute wealth to elites o High morale for Arabs but severe discontent by the conquered o Diversity of ethnicities & religions cause problems 3 Post-Classical Era 500-1000 CE (Unit 3) [CHAPTER 14 : ] The Expansive Realm of Islam I - Jizya o o - - - Levy special head tax to those who did not convert to Islam Even those converted didn’t enjoy wealth or positions of authority Caliphs o Caliphs alienated themselves from other Arabs o Devote themselves increasingly to luxury rather than leadership of umma o Casual attitudes towards Islamic doctrine & morality – scandalous to devout Muslims o Disillusionment by Arab military leaders Shia o Continued resistance by Shia who promote descendants of Ali for caliph Abu al-Abbas o Descendent of Muhammad’s uncle o Leader of rebellion in Persia o Sunni Arab but ally with Shias and nonArab Muslims Converts in SW Asia Persian converts strongest supporters o 740s reject Umayyad authority & seize control of Persia and Mesopotamia o 750 defeat Umayyads, invite remaining Umayyad clan to banquet for slaughter ABBASID DYNASTY Background - Abu al-Abbas o Found Abassid dynasty after slaughter of remaining Umayyads Umayyads vs. Abbasid - Abbasid far more cosmopolitan - Abbasid did no show favor to Arab military elites - Arabs continue to play large role in govt. but Persians, Egyptians, Mesopotamians grow in power & wealth - Abbasid not a conquering dynasty like Umayyad - Expansion o Intermittent battles w/ Byzantium o Clash frequently w/ nomads of C Asia o 751 Battle of Talas River Defeat Tang China End Chinese expansion into C Asia Open door for Islam to Turks o Marginal expansion but not led by caliphs but autonomous Islamic forces Example: 800s-early 900s Tunisia mount naval expeditions throughout Mediterranean Politics - - - - - Not bent on conquest but administer inherited land Rely heavily on Persian administrative techniques Central power from Baghdad Caliphs o Kept standing army o Establish bureaucratic ministries Taxation, finance, coinage, postal services o Maintain network of roads inherited from Persians Ulama & Quadis o extremely influential officials due to moral authority o Act as provincial governors Ulama (“people with religious knowledge”) o Learned officials who make laws o Pious scholars – sought to develop public policy in accordance w/ Quran & Sharia o Set moral standards Qadis (“judges”) o Not priests since Islam doesn’t recognize class of religious specialists o Receive formal education emphasizing Quran and Sharia o Hear law cases & make judgments based on Quran & Sharia o Resolve disputes Harun al-Rashid (786-809 CE) o Reign during high point of Abassid Liberal support for artists & writers Luxurious gifts for favorites Money to poor & commoners Elephant to Charlemagne o Integrity of Empire Lost some of force in provinces far from Baghdad Strong enough to maintain reliable tax from most of its empire Baghdad becomes center of banking, commerce, crafts, industry and metropolis Decline - Succession o Harun al-Rashid’s sons fought over succession after Harun’s death o Succession becomes recurring problem - Provincial Governors o Take advantage of disorder in ruling house o Act independently instead of implementing imperial policies o Keep taxes instead of sending to Baghdad o Some actually seceded form empire - Uprisings o Popular uprisings & peasant rebellions o Dissenting sects & heretical movements support uprisings 4 Post-Classical Era 500-1000 CE (Unit 3) [CHAPTER 14 : ] The Expansive Realm of Islam I - - Caliphs as Figureheads o 945 Persian noble family seize control of Baghdad & control Abbasid throne o Seljuk Sultans Abbasids ally w/ Seljuk Turks of C Asia who entered Abbasid and convert to Islam Seluks invade Byzantine Empire 1050 control Baghdad and extend authority to Syria, Palestine & Anatolia Retain caliphs as nominal sovereigns Sultans true source of power 1258 Mongol invasion ends dynasty COMPLEXITY Agriculture - Expansion introduce new useful crops o Most important transplants travel W - Impact in the west o Richer & varied diet o Increased food – enable cultivators to extend growing season – transplanted foods grow well in high heat – hot areas till land year round o Industrial uses – indigo, henna for dyes – used heavily by textile industry - Experimentation o Efficient travel & communication encourage experimentation of agricultural methods Irrigation, fertilization, crop rotation, agricultural manuals, etc. o Effect – vigorous economic growth Urbanization - Increased agriculture contribute to rapid growth of cities - Flourishing markets w/ specialized industrial production Industry - Paper Manufacture o Battle of Tlas River Chinese make paper since 0-100s but did not spread until Arab victory 751 took prisoners skilled in paper production o Paper cheaper & easier to use o Facilitate administrative & commercial records o Dissemination of books & treatises in larger quantities o 900s paper spread to W Europe Trade - - - - - Islamic Commerce o Drew much of prosperity from trade o Muhammad himself a merchant o Merchants held in high esteem o Honest merchant stand alongside martyrs to the faith Overland Trade o Conquest of Sasanid brings control of C Asia o Revived silk roads enable trade China to the E Mediterranean to the W o Camels & Caravans Overland trade mostly by camel caravan Camels uncooperative and unpleasant but endure rigors of desert – carry heavy loads o Caravanserais Inns maintained by Arabs and C. Asia Maritime Trade o Increasing nautical technology Compass – China Lateen sail SE Asia/India Triangular sail increase maneuverability Astrolabe Hellenistic Mediterranean Calculate latitude Transportation o Revived silk roads facilitate Trade Effective Administration Spread of Islam through missionaries Military Expansion Banks o Stimulate commerce since classical times o Islamic banks of Abbasid operate on much larger scale than before o More extensive range of services Lent money Brokers for investments Exchange different currencies Sakk Letters of credit by multiple branches – root of modern word “check” Draw letters of credit in one city and withdraw in another Settle accounts w/ distant business partners 5 Post-Classical Era 500-1000 CE (Unit 3) [CHAPTER 14 : ] The Expansive Realm of Islam I Organization of Trade o Precedents in classical Mediterranean o Increasing volume of trade necessitate refinement of old methods o Islamic law provide security for entrepreneurs by explicit recognition of certain forms of business Group investments Direct partnerships Investment only partnerships - Surge of LDT due to: o Transportation o Banking o Organization of trade - Trade Relations o China, India, Mediterranean, W & E Africa, Russia, Scandinavia - Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain) o Most of Iberian peninsula controlled by Muslim Berber conquerors of N Africa o Governors were Umayyads who refused to recognize Abbasids o 900s declare themselves caliphs o Participate actively in commercial life o Imported crops increase food supply and enrich diet of al-Andalus o Prosperity enable active trade & reputation for excellence in ceramics, painted tiles, lead crystal & gold jewelry o Magnificent city at Cordoba Patriarchy - Arabians patriarchal before Muhammad o - Status of Women - Rights of Arabian Women o More rights than women from other lands o Legally inherit property o Divorce husbands o Engage in business ventures - Muhammad’s Example o Generosity toward his wives serve as example and improve lives of Muslim women o Many scribes of the Quran were women including Khadija his wife o But had 4 wives - Quran & Women’s Rights o In a way enhance security of women o Outlaw infanticide o Dowries went directly to brides not husbands or male guardians o Did not portray women as property o Women as honorable individuals equal to men in front of Allah - Quran/Sharia & Patriarchy - Most part Quran & Sharia reinforce male dominance o Descent rhough male line o Genealogical purity to guarantee proper inheritance Strict control of social & sexual lives of women by male guardians o Teach women w/ sensitivity & respect but take up to 4 wives – women can only have 1 o Over centuries legal scholars interpret Quran in more restrictive ways Veiling of Women o Expansion into Byzantine & Sasanid empires – encounter stronger patriarchal traditions – adopt veiling of women o 1200s BCE Mesopotamian women use veil Sign of modesty for upper class women Only venture out w/ chaperones Discourage attention of men ISLAMIC VEHICLES OF INFLUENCE Quran & Sharia - Act as unifying doctrine - Serve as body of civil & criminal law - Ulama & Qadis o Bridge differences in cultural traditions o Spread Islamic values o Hold positions in Islamic courts o Prominent in public life o Resolve disputes o Order public observance of Islamic social/moral standards - Education o Mosques maintain elementary education and religious instruction o Promote Islamic values o Wealthy Muslims sometimes establish schools & support it o Madrasas 900s institution of higher education 1100s established throughout cities Rulers support to recruit literate learned students w/ advanced ed. In Islamic theology & law for admin. o Inexpensive paper enhance ability to instruct & disseminate Islamic teachings - Sufis o Increasingly popular after 800s o Mystics most effective Islamic missionaries Emphasize devotion above mastery of doctrine 6 Post-Classical Era 500-1000 CE (Unit 3) [CHAPTER 14 : ] The Expansive Realm of Islam I o o o - Hajj o o o Sometimes encourage reverence to Allah in own ways – even if no basis in Quran Tolerate pre-Islamic customs – association of Allah w/ deities of other faiths Respect for ascetic holy lives devoted o people in need Kindness, holiness, tolerance, and charisma appealing Numerous converts in Persia & India Doctrine vs. Spirituality Did not deny Islamic doctrine Many advanced education in Islamic theology & law Did not find formal religious teachings meaningful Did not concern themselves w/ fine points of doctrine Muslim theologians sometimes mistrust sufis – lack of concern for doctrine lead to wrong beliefs Spirituality Work to deepen spiritual awareness Led pious ascetic lives Devote themselves in helping the poor - Some live as beggars Sought mystical union w/ Allah Rely on rousing sermons, passionate singing, spirited dances to bring to high emotions Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 CE) Most important of early sufis Persian theologian Argue human reason too frail to understand nature of Allah Humans cannot explain mysteries of the world Only through devotion & guidance from Quran humans appreciate uniqueness & power of Allah Philosophy & reason vain pursuits – led to confusion rather than understanding Pilgrimage to Ka’ba symbol of Islamic cultural unity Abbasid caliphs encourage pilgrimage to enhance cultural unity Built inns and maintain roads Policed routes for safety Lavish gifts to shrines & sites of pilgrimage Pilgrims spread Islam INFLUENCE ON ISLAM Persian Influence - Persia under Islamic influence early o Abbasid & capital at Baghdad - Political o Central administrative techniques of Sasanid o Crucial in organizing Umayyad & Abbasid o Persian ideas of kingship Caliphs & regional governors Kings as wise, benevolent but absolute ruler - Writing o Arabic as language of religion, theology, philosophy and law o Persian principle language of literature, poetry history, and political reflection o Omar Khayyam Rubaiuat - poetry Translated by Edward Fitzgerald o Stories Arabian Nights The Thousand and One Nights Popular tales of adventure & romance of Abbasid and court of Harun al-Rashid Indian Influence - Math/Science/Medicine o Adopted by Arab & Persian Muslims in N India o Railed against Indian religion but hailed science, math and medicine o Math Sophisticated math of Gupta Hindi (Arabic) numerals Simplified bookkeeping for Muslim merchants Muslim scholars advance Indian math Algebra, trigonometry, geometry o Science Precise astronomical calculations aided by flexible Indian math Advance Muslim astronomy o Medicine Treatments for specific ailments Antidotes for poisons Greek Influence - Philosophy/Science/Medicine - Philosophy o Special interest in Plato & Aristotle o 900s-1000s synthesize Greek & Muslim thought by harmonizing Plato w/ teachings of Islam Resistance by conservative theologians like al-Ghazali – 7 Post-Classical Era 500-1000 CE (Unit 3) [CHAPTER 14 : ] The Expansive Realm of Islam I o - Math o o considered Greek philosophy unreliable guide to truth – rely on frail human reason 1100s turn to Aristotle in response to attacks Ibn Rushd (1126-1198 CE) Qadi of Seville in Cordoba Articulate purely rational understanding of the world Shape Islamic philosophy Reliance on natural reason not widely accepted by many Muslims After 1200s Muslim philosophers/theologians drew inspiration more from Islamic sources rather than Greek Greek philosophy lost favor but didn’t disappear Influenced W Europe – development of scholasticism to harmonize Christianity w/ Aristotelian thought Greek math didn’t use Indian numerals Offer solid body of reasoning Algebra & geometry 8