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Post-Classical Era
500-1000 CE (Unit 3)
[CHAPTER 14 : ]
The Expansive Realm of Islam
I
ARABIA AT THE TIME OF MUHAMMAD
Geography
- Arabian peninsula mostly desert
- Agriculture possible only in well-watered area
o Yemen in S
o Medina & other oasis towns
Bedouins
- Nomadic herders
o Sheep, goats, camels
- Organized in family clans
o Depend heavily on kinship networks
o Life & death depend on relationship due to
harsh environment
o Strong sense of loyalty to clans
o Guard common interests
o Clan identities survive centuries after Islam
Religion
- Home to diverse religions & cultures
o Many Jewish merchants in Arabia
o Many converted to Christianity by time of
Muhammad
- Polytheistic
o Gods, goddesses, demons, nature spirits
o Seek favor through prayers & sacrifice
Trade
- Prominent in long distance trade
- After 200s Arabia increasingly important link in
maritime trade
o China & India – E
o Persia & Byzantine – W
- Fall of classical empires make overland travel
insecure – overseas travel increase
- Mecca – important passing city for trade
FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAM
Syncretism
- Islam reflect influence of Jewish & Christian faiths
- Muslim society reflect nomadic/mercantile Arabia
- New Islamic society reflect blend of Arab, Persian,
Greek & Indian societies
Key Terms
o Islam – submission
o Muslim – one who has submitted
o Dar al-Islam – house of Islam
Muhammad ibn Abdullah (570-632 CE)
- Background
o Reputable family of merchants in Mecca
o Difficult early life - orphaned at 6 – cared by
uncle & grandfather
o 595 CE married Khadija – wealthy widow
 Gain prominence through marriage
but did not enter ranks of elite
o Age 30 establish himself as merchant
o
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-
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Exposed to diverse cultures & religions
 Basic knowledge of Judaism &
Christianity
 Dealt w/Jewish/Christian merchant
Spiritual Transformation (610 CE)
o Age 40 profound spiritual experience –
visions from the only one true deity (Allah)
delivered through the archangel Gabriel
(messenger of God of the Jews/Christians)
o Instruct him to spread his faith to others
o Deeply influenced by Judaism, Christianity,
Zoroastrianism
o Allah
 Ruled the universe
 Idolatry as sin
 God judge the world
 Reward the righteous
 Punish the wicked
o 620 zealous group join in spread of Islam
Quran (650s BCE)
o Holy book of Islam
o Muhammad’s oral transmission of
revelations from visions
o 650s followers prepare written text
o Magnificent poetry and song
o Muhammad’s understanding of Allah and
his relation to world
o Definitive authority for Islamic religious
doctrine & social organization
o Muslims regard Arabic text of Quran as only
definitive & reliable scripture – translations
not as powerful
Other Literature
o Several other sources of moral/religious
guidance
o Hadith
 Sayings attributed to Muhammad
 Accounts of the prophet’s deeds
 800s-1000s several collections
appear – scholars use as guides for
interpretation of the Quran
o Less authoritative documents
 Social legal customs
 Biographies of Muhammad
 Pious commentaries on the Quran
Conflict at Mecca
o Mecca leading city in Arabia and home to
Muhammad
o Growing popularity of Muhammad led to
conflict with elites at Mecca - Religious
issues
o Muhammad’s insistence on Allah as only
divine power – disparage long-existing
deities
1
Post-Classical Era
500-1000 CE (Unit 3)
[CHAPTER 14 : ]
The Expansive Realm of Islam
I
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Many Arab elite polytheistic – see
him as offensive and dangerous
o Muhammad denounce greed as moral
wickedness that Allah will punish
 Ruling elites were the wealthiest
merchants
o Attack on idolatry – economic threat to
those who owned & profited from many
shrines that attracted merchants
 Ka’ba – best known of shrines – lg.
black rock – supposed dwelling
place of powerful deity – housed in
cube-shaped building – drew
wealth to Mecca
 Muhammad’s relentless
condemnation led to his
persecution and of his followers
Hijra – “migration”
o Persecution so great his followers flee to
Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
o Muhammad remain in Mecca until 622 –
fled to Yathrib (called it Medina)
o Muhammad’s flight to Medina serves as
starting point of the official Islamic calendar
Umma – “community of the faithful”
o Muhammad organize followers into
cohesive community called umma
o Concentrate on moral & religious
dimensions of Islam
o Guided practical & spiritual affairs
o Provide legal & social code
o Led umma in daily prayers
o Led battles w/ enemies in Medina, Mecca
and other places
o Look after economic welfare of the umma
 Organize commercial ventures
 Raid against caravans from Mecca
o Relief for widows, orphans and poor
“Seal of the Prophets”
o Muhammad’s understanding of his religious
mission expanded in Medina
o Refer to himself as final prophet through
whom Allah reveal his message to mankind
o Accept authority of Jewish & Christian
prophets (Abraham, Moses, Jesus…) – held
Old & New Testament in high esteem
o Allah same monotheistic God of the Jews &
Christians - but reveal more complete
revelation to Muhammad than Jews or
Christians
Conquest of Arabia
o 629 pilgrimage to Ka’ba
o 630 attack Mecca & conquer city
o Force elites to adopt Islam
o Impose government dedicated to Allah
o Conquest of other towns & Bedouin clans
o
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Campaign - most of Arabia under Islamic
control
o Mosques
 Destroy pagan shrines and replace
w/ mosques
 Buildings instill sense of
sacredness and community where
Muslims gather for prayer
o Ka’ba
 Deny Ka’ba was home of deity
 Preserve black rock as symbol of
Mecca’s greatness
 Allow only faithful to approach
shrine
 632 Muhammad makes first
Islamic pilgrimage to Ka’ba –
establish hajj as an example
The Five Pillars of Islam
o Allah as only god, Muhammad his prophet
o Daily prayer to Allah facing Mecca
o Fast in daylight hours of month of Ramadan
o Alms for weak and poor
o Hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca
Sharia
o Islamic holy law – civil & criminal
o Provide cultural unity in diverse lands
o Centuries after Muhammad
o Guidance on proper behavior in almost
every aspect of life
o Elaborated by jurists & legal scholars
o Inspired by Quran
o Quran & Sharia establish religious doctrine
complete w/ social & ethical values
Jihad (“struggle”)
o Some Muslims take jihad as additional
obligation for the faithful
o Understood in various ways
o Impose spiritual and moral obligations on
Muslims to combat vice and evil
o Struggle against ignorance and unbelief by
spreading Islam & seek converts
o Some circumstances involve physical
struggle – sword & wage war against
unbelievers threat against Islam
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Post-Classical Era
500-1000 CE (Unit 3)
[CHAPTER 14 : ]
The Expansive Realm of Islam
I
EXPANSION OF ISLAM
Muhammad’s Death
- No provisions for a successor
- Seal of the prophets – possibility of another prophet
inconceivable
- Serious division within umma about successor
- Many towns & Bedouin clans renounce new faith
Abu Bakr
- Muhammad’s closest friend & devoted disciple
- Caliph (“deputy”)
o Led umma not as prophets but as lieutenants
or subs for Muhammad
o Head of state, chief judge, religious leader
and military commander
o Offensive against towns & clans that
renounced Islam
o
Compel them to recognize Islam and rule of
caliph within a year
Military Expansion
- Much less powerful than Sasanids or Byzantium but
effective because:
o Unified state under Islam
o Attack when empires exhausted from wars
o Attack during uprisings from overtaxed
peasants and oppressed ethnic/religious
- Sasanid Empire of Persia
o 633-637 take Mesopotamia
o 651 end Sasanid dynasty
o Adopt Persian govt. & finance
o Literature, science, religion
- Parts of Byzantine Empire
o 633-637 take Syria and Palestine
o 640s take Egypt & N Africa
- India
o 711 NW Hindu kingdom of Sind
- W Europe
o 711-718 NW Africa, Strait of Gibraltar,
most of Iberia, threaten Franks in Gaul
- Mid 700s
o C Asian to the east
o NW Africa/Iberia to the west
Problems of Expansion
- Rapid expansion cause problems w/
administration
- Caliphs
o Most powerful Arab clans appoint first 4
o Ambition, personal difference, clan loyalties
complicate deliberations
o Rise of Factions
- Sunni (“traditionalists”)
o Faction of Islamic faith observed by the
majority of Muslims
- Shia (“party”)
o Most important & enduring alternative to
faith observed by majority (Sunni)
o
o
o
Shia sect rise over disagreements in
succession
Ali
 Sect originate in support of Ali for
appointment to caliph
 Cousin and son-in-law of
Muhammad
 Support for Abu Bakr stronger
 656-661 serve briefly as caliph but
assassinated & killed relatives
Shia Distinction
 Enemies impose own candidate for
caliph
 Shia sect furiously resist & try to
restore caliphate to line of Ali
 Persecuted but survived
 Strengthen identity by adopting
doctrines & rituals different from
Sunnis
 Observe holy days honoring leaders
& martyrs to their cause
 Taught descendants of Ali were
infallible, sinless, divinely
appointed to rule
 Advance interpretations of Quran
to support party’s views
 Serve as support for thos who
oppose Sunni policies
UMAYYAD DYNASTY (661-750 CE)
Politics
- Assassination of Ali temporarily solve problem of
succession
- Umayyads most prominent of Meccan merchant clan
- Reputation & network of alliances bring stability
- Capital at Damascus
o Established despite association w/ Mecca
o Central location enable better
communication
- Impose tightly centralized military rule
- Continued military expansion – conquering dynasty
Decline
- Policy of elites
o Policies reflect & favor Arab military
aristocracy
o Appoint members of elite as governors &
admin. of conquered lands
o Distribute wealth to elites
o High morale for Arabs but severe discontent
by the conquered
o Diversity of ethnicities & religions cause
problems
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Post-Classical Era
500-1000 CE (Unit 3)
[CHAPTER 14 : ]
The Expansive Realm of Islam
I
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Jizya
o
o
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Levy special head tax to those who did not
convert to Islam
Even those converted didn’t enjoy wealth or
positions of authority
Caliphs
o Caliphs alienated themselves from other
Arabs
o Devote themselves increasingly to luxury
rather than leadership of umma
o Casual attitudes towards Islamic doctrine &
morality – scandalous to devout Muslims
o Disillusionment by Arab military leaders
Shia
o Continued resistance by Shia who promote
descendants of Ali for caliph
Abu al-Abbas
o Descendent of Muhammad’s uncle
o Leader of rebellion in Persia
o Sunni Arab but ally with Shias and nonArab Muslims
 Converts in SW Asia
 Persian converts strongest
supporters
o 740s reject Umayyad authority & seize
control of Persia and Mesopotamia
o 750 defeat Umayyads, invite remaining
Umayyad clan to banquet for slaughter
ABBASID DYNASTY
Background
- Abu al-Abbas
o Found Abassid dynasty after slaughter of
remaining Umayyads
Umayyads vs. Abbasid
- Abbasid far more cosmopolitan
- Abbasid did no show favor to Arab military elites
- Arabs continue to play large role in govt. but Persians,
Egyptians, Mesopotamians grow in power & wealth
- Abbasid not a conquering dynasty like Umayyad
- Expansion
o Intermittent battles w/ Byzantium
o Clash frequently w/ nomads of C Asia
o 751 Battle of Talas River
 Defeat Tang China
 End Chinese expansion into C Asia
 Open door for Islam to Turks
o Marginal expansion but not led by caliphs
but autonomous Islamic forces
 Example: 800s-early 900s Tunisia
mount naval expeditions
throughout Mediterranean
Politics
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Not bent on conquest but administer inherited land
Rely heavily on Persian administrative techniques
Central power from Baghdad
Caliphs
o Kept standing army
o Establish bureaucratic ministries
 Taxation, finance, coinage, postal
services
o Maintain network of roads inherited from
Persians
Ulama & Quadis
o extremely influential officials due to moral
authority
o Act as provincial governors
Ulama (“people with religious knowledge”)
o Learned officials who make laws
o Pious scholars – sought to develop public
policy in accordance w/ Quran & Sharia
o Set moral standards
Qadis (“judges”)
o Not priests since Islam doesn’t recognize
class of religious specialists
o Receive formal education emphasizing
Quran and Sharia
o Hear law cases & make judgments based on
Quran & Sharia
o Resolve disputes
Harun al-Rashid (786-809 CE)
o Reign during high point of Abassid
 Liberal support for artists & writers
 Luxurious gifts for favorites
 Money to poor & commoners
 Elephant to Charlemagne
o Integrity of Empire
 Lost some of force in provinces far
from Baghdad
 Strong enough to maintain reliable
tax from most of its empire
 Baghdad becomes center of
banking, commerce, crafts, industry
and metropolis
Decline
- Succession
o Harun al-Rashid’s sons fought over
succession after Harun’s death
o Succession becomes recurring problem
- Provincial Governors
o Take advantage of disorder in ruling house
o Act independently instead of implementing
imperial policies
o Keep taxes instead of sending to Baghdad
o Some actually seceded form empire
- Uprisings
o Popular uprisings & peasant rebellions
o Dissenting sects & heretical movements
support uprisings
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Post-Classical Era
500-1000 CE (Unit 3)
[CHAPTER 14 : ]
The Expansive Realm of Islam
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Caliphs as Figureheads
o 945 Persian noble family seize control of
Baghdad & control Abbasid throne
o Seljuk Sultans
 Abbasids ally w/ Seljuk Turks of C
Asia who entered Abbasid and
convert to Islam
 Seluks invade Byzantine Empire
 1050 control Baghdad and extend
authority to Syria, Palestine &
Anatolia
 Retain caliphs as nominal
sovereigns
 Sultans true source of power
1258 Mongol invasion ends dynasty
COMPLEXITY
Agriculture
- Expansion introduce new useful crops
o Most important transplants travel W
- Impact in the west
o Richer & varied diet
o Increased food – enable cultivators to extend
growing season – transplanted foods grow
well in high heat – hot areas till land year
round
o Industrial uses – indigo, henna for dyes –
used heavily by textile industry
- Experimentation
o Efficient travel & communication encourage
experimentation of agricultural methods
 Irrigation, fertilization, crop
rotation, agricultural manuals, etc.
o Effect – vigorous economic growth
Urbanization
- Increased agriculture contribute to rapid growth of
cities
- Flourishing markets w/ specialized industrial
production
Industry
- Paper Manufacture
o Battle of Tlas River
 Chinese make paper since 0-100s
but did not spread until Arab
victory
 751 took prisoners skilled in paper
production
o Paper cheaper & easier to use
o Facilitate administrative & commercial
records
o Dissemination of books & treatises in larger
quantities
o 900s paper spread to W Europe
Trade
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Islamic Commerce
o Drew much of prosperity from trade
o Muhammad himself a merchant
o Merchants held in high esteem
o Honest merchant stand alongside martyrs to
the faith
Overland Trade
o Conquest of Sasanid brings control of C
Asia
o Revived silk roads enable trade

China to the E
 Mediterranean to the W
o Camels & Caravans
 Overland trade mostly by camel
caravan
 Camels uncooperative and
unpleasant but endure rigors of
desert – carry heavy loads
o Caravanserais
 Inns maintained by Arabs and C.
Asia
Maritime Trade
o Increasing nautical technology
 Compass – China
 Lateen sail
 SE Asia/India
 Triangular sail increase
maneuverability
 Astrolabe
 Hellenistic Mediterranean
 Calculate latitude
Transportation
o Revived silk roads facilitate
 Trade
 Effective Administration
 Spread of Islam through
missionaries
 Military Expansion
Banks
o Stimulate commerce since classical times
o Islamic banks of Abbasid operate on much
larger scale than before
o More extensive range of services
 Lent money
 Brokers for investments
 Exchange different currencies
 Sakk
 Letters of credit by
multiple branches – root
of modern word “check”
 Draw letters of credit in
one city and withdraw in
another
 Settle accounts w/ distant
business partners
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Post-Classical Era
500-1000 CE (Unit 3)
[CHAPTER 14 : ]
The Expansive Realm of Islam
I
Organization of Trade
o Precedents in classical Mediterranean
o Increasing volume of trade necessitate
refinement of old methods
o Islamic law provide security for
entrepreneurs by explicit recognition of
certain forms of business
 Group investments
 Direct partnerships
 Investment only partnerships
- Surge of LDT due to:
o Transportation
o Banking
o Organization of trade
- Trade Relations
o China, India, Mediterranean, W & E Africa,
Russia, Scandinavia
- Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain)
o Most of Iberian peninsula controlled by
Muslim Berber conquerors of N Africa
o Governors were Umayyads who refused to
recognize Abbasids
o 900s declare themselves caliphs
o Participate actively in commercial life
o Imported crops increase food supply and
enrich diet of al-Andalus
o Prosperity enable active trade & reputation
for excellence in ceramics, painted tiles, lead
crystal & gold jewelry
o Magnificent city at Cordoba
Patriarchy
- Arabians patriarchal before Muhammad
o
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Status of Women
- Rights of Arabian Women
o More rights than women from other lands
o Legally inherit property
o Divorce husbands
o Engage in business ventures
- Muhammad’s Example
o Generosity toward his wives serve as
example and improve lives of Muslim
women
o Many scribes of the Quran were women
including Khadija his wife
o But had 4 wives
- Quran & Women’s Rights
o In a way enhance security of women
o Outlaw infanticide
o Dowries went directly to brides not
husbands or male guardians
o Did not portray women as property
o Women as honorable individuals equal to
men in front of Allah
- Quran/Sharia & Patriarchy
-
Most part Quran & Sharia reinforce male
dominance
o Descent rhough male line
o Genealogical purity to guarantee proper
inheritance
 Strict control of social & sexual
lives of women by male guardians
o Teach women w/ sensitivity & respect but
take up to 4 wives – women can only have 1
o Over centuries legal scholars interpret Quran
in more restrictive ways
Veiling of Women
o Expansion into Byzantine & Sasanid
empires – encounter stronger patriarchal
traditions – adopt veiling of women
o 1200s BCE Mesopotamian women use veil
 Sign of modesty for upper class
women
 Only venture out w/ chaperones
 Discourage attention of men
ISLAMIC VEHICLES OF INFLUENCE
Quran & Sharia
- Act as unifying doctrine
- Serve as body of civil & criminal law
- Ulama & Qadis
o Bridge differences in cultural traditions
o Spread Islamic values
o Hold positions in Islamic courts
o Prominent in public life
o Resolve disputes
o Order public observance of Islamic
social/moral standards
- Education
o Mosques maintain elementary education and
religious instruction
o Promote Islamic values
o Wealthy Muslims sometimes establish
schools & support it
o Madrasas
 900s institution of higher education
 1100s established throughout cities
 Rulers support to recruit literate
learned students w/ advanced ed. In
Islamic theology & law for admin.
o Inexpensive paper enhance ability to instruct
& disseminate Islamic teachings
- Sufis
o Increasingly popular after 800s
o Mystics most effective Islamic
missionaries
 Emphasize devotion above mastery
of doctrine
6
Post-Classical Era
500-1000 CE (Unit 3)
[CHAPTER 14 : ]
The Expansive Realm of Islam
I
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Hajj
o
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Sometimes encourage reverence to
Allah in own ways – even if no
basis in Quran
 Tolerate pre-Islamic customs –
association of Allah w/ deities of
other faiths
 Respect for ascetic holy lives
devoted o people in need
 Kindness, holiness, tolerance, and
charisma appealing
 Numerous converts in Persia &
India
Doctrine vs. Spirituality
 Did not deny Islamic doctrine
 Many advanced education in
Islamic theology & law
 Did not find formal religious
teachings meaningful
 Did not concern themselves w/ fine
points of doctrine
 Muslim theologians sometimes
mistrust sufis – lack of concern for
doctrine lead to wrong beliefs
Spirituality
 Work to deepen spiritual awareness
 Led pious ascetic lives
 Devote themselves in helping the
poor - Some live as beggars
 Sought mystical union w/ Allah
 Rely on rousing sermons,
passionate singing, spirited dances
to bring to high emotions
Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 CE)
 Most important of early sufis
 Persian theologian
 Argue human reason too frail to
understand nature of Allah
 Humans cannot explain mysteries
of the world
 Only through devotion & guidance
from Quran humans appreciate
uniqueness & power of Allah
 Philosophy & reason vain pursuits
– led to confusion rather than
understanding
Pilgrimage to Ka’ba symbol of Islamic
cultural unity
Abbasid caliphs encourage pilgrimage to
enhance cultural unity
 Built inns and maintain roads
 Policed routes for safety
 Lavish gifts to shrines & sites of
pilgrimage
Pilgrims spread Islam
INFLUENCE ON ISLAM
Persian Influence
- Persia under Islamic influence early
o Abbasid & capital at Baghdad
- Political
o Central administrative techniques of Sasanid
o Crucial in organizing Umayyad & Abbasid
o Persian ideas of kingship
 Caliphs & regional governors
 Kings as wise, benevolent but
absolute ruler
- Writing
o Arabic as language of religion, theology,
philosophy and law
o Persian principle language of literature,
poetry history, and political reflection
o Omar Khayyam
 Rubaiuat - poetry
 Translated by Edward Fitzgerald
o Stories
 Arabian Nights
 The Thousand and One Nights
 Popular tales of adventure &
romance of Abbasid and court of
Harun al-Rashid
Indian Influence
- Math/Science/Medicine
o Adopted by Arab & Persian Muslims in N
India
o Railed against Indian religion but hailed
science, math and medicine
o Math
 Sophisticated math of Gupta
 Hindi (Arabic) numerals
 Simplified bookkeeping for
Muslim merchants
 Muslim scholars advance Indian
math
 Algebra, trigonometry,
geometry
o Science
 Precise astronomical calculations
aided by flexible Indian math
 Advance Muslim astronomy
o Medicine
 Treatments for specific ailments
 Antidotes for poisons
Greek Influence
- Philosophy/Science/Medicine
- Philosophy
o Special interest in Plato & Aristotle
o 900s-1000s synthesize Greek & Muslim
thought by harmonizing Plato w/ teachings
of Islam
 Resistance by conservative
theologians like al-Ghazali –
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Post-Classical Era
500-1000 CE (Unit 3)
[CHAPTER 14 : ]
The Expansive Realm of Islam
I
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Math
o
o
considered Greek philosophy
unreliable guide to truth – rely on
frail human reason
 1100s turn to Aristotle in response
to attacks
Ibn Rushd (1126-1198 CE)
 Qadi of Seville in Cordoba
 Articulate purely rational
understanding of the world
 Shape Islamic philosophy
 Reliance on natural reason not
widely accepted by many Muslims
 After 1200s Muslim
philosophers/theologians drew
inspiration more from Islamic
sources rather than Greek
 Greek philosophy lost favor but
didn’t disappear
 Influenced W Europe –
development of scholasticism to
harmonize Christianity w/
Aristotelian thought
Greek math didn’t use Indian numerals
Offer solid body of reasoning
 Algebra & geometry
8