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5860
Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
ISSN 1819-544X
This is a refereed journal and all articles are professionally screened and reviewed
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
Geological studies of the coastal area between Mersa um Gheig and Ras Banas , Red
Sea coast, Egypt
1
EL-Wekeil, S.S.; 1EL-Bady, M.S.M.; 2Ramadan, F.S. & 3Kaiser, S.H.
1
National Research Center
Faculty of science, Zagazig University
3
(EMRA) Egyptian Mineral Resources Authority
2
ABSTRACT
Egypt's Red Sea coast runs from the Gulf of Suez to the Sudanese border. The length of the study area
between Mersa um Gheig and Ras Banas is about 240 km. The main geomorphological unit in the study area
includes mountains (basement), shoreline, beach, alluvial fan, and flood plain. The study area studied by tow
methods: 1- sedimentological and mineralogical (Geologic) methods 2- remote sensing methods. The geologic
method give a light picture about the composition of the beach, where the beach sediments range from
calcareous sand in the north of the study area (Mersa um Gheig, the sand percent 86.83%) to carbonate beach in
the south of the study area (Ras Banas, the carbonate percent 96.78%). Also the heavy minerals in the beach
sand studied in fine (0.250-0.125mm) and very fine(0.125 – 0.063mm) fractions (average percentages of two
fractions) to shed more light on the nature of the source rocks and their sedimentary history. Opaques and non
Opaques (Amphibole, Epidote, staurolite, Zircon, Muscovite, Chlorite, Garnet, Rutile) are studied in detail as
averages in both fine and very fine fractions. The heavy metals (elements) in the study area estimated and
interpreted, where, Ba range from 10.1 to 315 ppm, Sr range from 548 to 2800 ppm, Cr range from 0.0 to 250
ppm, , Ni range from 0.0 to 103ppm, Cu from 10 to 35ppm, Zn from 0.0 to 94 ppm, Sc from 0.0 to 17.6 ppm, V
from 0.0 to 277 ppm, Y from 0.0 to 9ppm, and Mo from 2 to 16 ppm. The remote sensing method also used in
this area for study the sedimentation changes in many selected sites. Finally the purpose of this study is
determination the geological and environmental properties of each beach in the selected sites and the suitable of
each site for different sustainable development activities.
Key words: Red Sea, Sedimentation, Heavy Minerals, Contamination Factor ,beach, Wadi
Introduction
The total length of the Egyptian Red Sea coast is about 2000 km. The Red Sea is a semi-enclosed sea
bordered by seven countries Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen. The Red Sea is
well known for its extensive and easily accessible coastal fringing coral reefs, and their clear and warm waters.
The red sea rift system were formed in the Late Oligocene – Early Miocene in response to the NE
separation of Arabia away from Africa (McKenzie et al., 1970; Pichon, and Francheteau, 1978; Meshref, 1990;
Morgan, 1990; Coleman, 1993; Purser and Bosence, 1998), with part of the plate movement taken up by
opening of the Gulf of Suez rift during the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene (Mckenzie et al., 1970; Girdler and
Southren, 1987; Hempton, 1987; Joffe and Garfunkel, 1987; Coleman, 1993). In the Late Miocene, continued
opening of the Red Sea become linked to sinistral offset along the Gulf of Aqaba-Levant Transform( Freund,
1970; Ben-Menahem et al., 1976). The stratigraphy of the western side of Red Sea are studied by many of
authors (Said, 1990; Purser and Boscence, 1998 and Khalil, and McClay, (2009)) (Fig. 1). Where these authors
studied the lithostratigraphy and facies variations of Cretaceous to Quaternary deposits as well as the tectonic
events. The most of the western coast of the Red Sea is characterized by arid climate and dominated by hot
temperatures, rainless summer and mild winter. The average annual precipitation rate is about 17.4 mm
(meteorological stations of Ras Banas). The monthly mean temperature varies between 24-38o C during summer
and 12-26oC during winter. The relative humidity varies between 28% in summer and 59% in winter. The
average evaporation, transpiration varies between 8.7 mm/day in winter and 28 mm/day in summer. Rainfall in
the Red Sea region is extremely sparse and is usually localized in the form of short showers. (Azab,2009).
Corresponding Author: El-Bady, M.S.M, National Research Center
Mobile: +201223333204; E-mail: [email protected]
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J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Fig. 1: Stratigraphy of the western Red Sea, (Said, 1990; Purser and Boscence, 1998 ; Khalil and McClay
(2009)).
Increased sea surface temperatures due to global warming may increase the frequency and intensity of
hurricanes (Webster et al., 2005) These changes in storm frequency and their intensity could also change
patterns of alongshore sediment transport. Nicholls et al., (2008) stated that to better support climate and coastal
management policy development, more integrated assessments of climate change in coastal areas are required,
including the significant non-climate changes.
According to (USAID,2008) Salinity in the Red Sea is generally high due to high evaporation, low
precipitation, and the lack of a major river inflow. Salinity is usually lower in the southern region. Salinity in the
north is around 41,000 parts per million (ppm) while in the south, it is 38,000 ppm. According to OrszagSperber, et al.(2001) The major processes responsible for shallow-water evaporite precipitation are controlled
by two types of factors: the basin geometry and the unique or rhythmic changes of its surrounding environment.
Where, the evaporation in many areas in Red Sea region is very high (about 235 cm/year). Both include relative
sea-level changes that may be interpreted in terms of eustacy as well as tectonic. The Quaternary evaporites
illustrate the effect of eustatic and climatic variations at various scales of times.
5862
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Wind direction in Red Sea region , wind north latitude 19o is northerly most of the year, but in the south,
wind is generally controlled by monsoon system of the Arabian Sea. In winter the SW wind prevails and the
wind is from NW in summer. The mean sea level in Red Sea region is highest in winter and lowest in summer
due to the water evaporation. The hydrodynamic features of the Red Sea coast shown that the temporal and
spatial currents variation is as low as 0.5 m and are governed mostly by wind. In summer, northwest winds drive
surface water south for about 4 months at a velocity of 15–20 centimeters per second (cm/s), whereas in winter
the flow is reversed resulting in the inflow of water from the Gulf of Aden into the Red Sea (USAID,2008). The
net value of the latter predominates, resulting in an overall drift to the northern end of the Red Sea. Generally,
the velocity of the tidal current is between 50–60 cm/s, with a maximum of 1 m/s at the mouth of the El-Kharrar
Lagoon. However, the range of north–northeast current along the Saudi coast is 8–29 cm/s , (USAID,2008).
(Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Red Sea Currents (from, USAID,2008)
The coastal zone attracts the greatest number of tourists (Davenport and Davenport, 2006) and the greatest
growth in tourism is occurring in the sub-sector of coastal and marine tourism (UNEP, 2009). Coastal and
marine tourism activities are diverse, and include activities on the shore (e.g. walking, curio collecting, animal
observation, off-road vehicle tours), in coastal waters (e.g. swimming, surfing, boating), in offshore waters
(cruising, marine mammal observation, fishing), under the water (e.g. diving, shark feeding), and specialist
niche activities (e.g. marine research tourism, adventure tourism) (Hall, 2001; Orams, 2007; Wood, 2010). The
tourism industry represents 5% of global economic activity (Buckley, 2011). With an annual growth rate of
6.2%, the annual economic value of tourism surpassed US$1 trillion in 2011 and the number of international
tourist arrivals is predicted to reach 1 billion in 2012 (UNWTO, 2012a). Seen as an expanding source of
economic growth, developing nations have invested in their tourism industries and in 2010 these destinations
represented 47% of global tourism activity (UNWTO, 2012b).
In the Red Sea, most notably in Egypt, the earliest development of tourism infrastructure such as resorts,
jetties, walkways, artificial lagoons, artificial beaches, and groynes led to habitat through infilling, dredging,
digging, siltation, and replacement with buildings. The Red Sea region has been targeted for massive tourism
development in Egypt. The majority of the resorts were built along a coastal stretch of the Red Sea with about
50 - 300 m coastal setback depending on the shoreline conditions (Dewidar, 2011)
The study area and Sampling:
The total length of the studied coastal area of Red Sea about 240 km extend from Mersa Um Gheig (25o
43\ N , 34o 33\ E) to Ras Banas (24o 13\ N , 35o 24\ E) (Fig. 3). The narrow coastal plain of the studied area of
Red Sea lies between the high fringing mountains consisting mostly of crystalline rocks and the seawater. It is a
low topographic feature of a variable width ranging between 1 km as in Wadi Samadai to 5.3 km as in Wadi Um
Tundoba. Fifteen sites in the coastal area of Red Sea (between Mersa Um Gheig and Ras Banas) chosen to
collection of samples, where each sample (surface sample) represented for each site (Fig. 3). The samples were
collected from the coastal plain of each site near the shoreline (beach face) to study the sedimentological and
mineralogical properties.
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J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 586
60-5876, 2012
Material and
a Methods
o this area aree topographic m
map of 1986, satellite imagees of 2000 andd 2012, geologgic
Materiials of study of
maps of EGSMA as welll as fifteen rep
presentative saamples. Also field
f
observatioons and previo
ous works of thhe
Red Sea cooastal area are considered.
Carbonate contents of
o the samples were determinned using warm
m HCL (10%) aand following the procedure of
moving the carrbonates, the saamples were trreated by H2O
O2 (15%) in orrder to removinng
Ireland (19958). After rem
the organicc matter. The sand
s
and mud fractions were determined by
y wet sieving uusing the 0.0633 mm sieve. Thhe
obtained daata was plotted
d on the ternary
y diagram of Fuchtbauer and Muller (1970)).
Quanttitative microsscopic examinnation were ccarried out on
o the heavy mineral com
mponents of 15
1
representattive samples coollected from the
t sites of the studied area (b
beach face). Thhe size fractionns (fine and veery
fine) weree chosen for th
his investigatiion. These fractions were fiirst treated wiith HCL (10%
%) and Stannouus
chloride inn order to remoove iron oxidees coatings. Sepparation of heavy minerals w
was carried ouut by bromoforrm
(sp.gr. 2.855) and following method prooposed by Carrver (1971). Th
he heavy fractiions were deteermined for eacch
sample, whhere the heavyy fractions weere mounted inn Canada Balssam on glass slides
s
(Allman
n and Lawrencce,
1972) and
d the various mineral
m
constiitutes were iddentified using
g reflect light (polarizing microscope).
m
Thhe
relative prooportions of th
he minerals enccountered weree determined byy counting at least of 300 graains. The opaquue
and non-oppaque heavy minerals
m
are calculated, and thhe individual noon-opaque heaavy minerals arre calculated ass a
relative peercentages of total non-opaqu
ue minerals byy previous cou
unting using thhe polarizing microscope.
m
Thhe
trace elem
ments (Ba, Sr, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn,
Z Sc, V, Y, and Mo) are determined inn the central laaboratory of thhe
Geologicall survey. Thee elements haad been determ
mined by Induuctively Couppled Plasma Optical
O
Emissioon
Spectromeeter (I.C.P O.E.S) instrument, model Perkinn Elmer 3000, it is a powerfuul tool for the determination
d
of
metals(majjor and trace elements)
e
in a variety
v
of diffeerent sample matrices.
m
It is cconsists of threee parts:1- Raddio
Frequency(RF) generatorr 2- Sample inntroduction system 3- Spectroometer
e
has a recommended
r
h dissolved by
b
Each element
wavelength linne free from innterference. All the samples had
acid digesttion procedure before introduucing to the insstrument. The remote
r
sensingg method also used in this area
for study the geomorph
hologic changge detection, ddetermination of the shorelline changes and
a
the rate of
i
2012.
sedimentattion in many seelected sites byy using satellitee landsat imagees of 2000 and google earth image
Fig. 3: Eleevations map sh
howing the stuudy area and sampling Sedimeents and sedim
mentation in thee study area
Accorrding to El Mam
mony and Rifaaat, (2001) Thee main sourcess of sediments to the beachess of the Egyptiaan
Red Sea arre terrestrial deposits transpoorted from the fringing moun
ntains during tthe occasional runoffs througgh
the numeroous wadis, and the Middle Miocene and lateer biogenic carrbonate sedimeents.
5864
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
The most of coastal areas of Red Sea receive sediments from two different sources; the terrigenous rock
fragments from the hinter land mountains and skeletal carbonates from the sea (i.e.,siliclastic and carbonate
sediments ,respectively). In these mixed environments, the terrigenous components are introduced from out side
the depositional basin, whereas the skeletal carbonates originates mainly from near the depositional basin. The
skeletal carbonates have a remarkably limited history of transportation and deposition. (Mansour,1995)
Careful examination of the data Carbonate - Sand -Mud in various beach sediments in the study area
(Table. 1, Fig. 4) reveal that:
Carbonate and sand are highly constitutes. The sand content of the sediments are remarkably higher toward
the north of the study area, while the carbonate content remarkably higher towards the south of the study area.
The carbonates fraction is strongly occurring in the Ras Banas, Wadi Areik and Wadi Waseat as well as in Abu
Dabbab. The sand fraction strongly presented in Mersa Um Gheig, Wadi Laseifa, Wadi Ghadir, Wadi ELGemal
and Sharm ELFaqiri. The distribution of these sediment along the coastal area depend on the source rocks, the
effect of physical marine processes as waves and currents along the coastal area as well as the local sedimentary
conditions of each site in the study area. Sedimentation in the study area have been studied especially in five
sites (Mersa Um Gheig, EL Tormocy, Wadi Mubarak, Wadi Abu Dabbab and Wadi ELGemal) due to the large
length of the study area. the surface areas of the coastal plain changed due to the changes in the rate of
sedimentation resulting from the flooding and other conditions. The changes in coastal plain studied by satellite
images of 2000 and 2012. The surface area in Mersa Um Gheig is 0.2 sq. miles in satellite image of 2000 where
the surface area increase to reach 0.33 sq. miles, where the surface area north this site is 0.23 sq. miles in the
satellite image of 2012.
Table 1: Show the Compositional analyses of the studied samples
Sample No.
1
2
Name
Mersa
Gheig
Wadi
Laseifa
Location
um
Um
3
Um Greifat
4
Wadi um Areik
5
Wadi Mubarak
6
Wadi Waseat
7
Wadi
Dabbab
8
Wadi Igla
9
Wadi Samadai
10
Wadi
Tundoba
11
Wadi Ghadir
12
Sharm elfaqiri
abu
Um
13
Wadi ElGemal
14
Wadi Malek El
Oud
15
Ras Banas
o
\
25 43 N
34o 33\ E
25o 41\ N
34 o 27\ E
25 o 36\ N
34 o 36\ E
25 o 35\ N
34 o 36\ E
25 o 30\ N
34 o 39\ E
25 o 23\ N
34 o 42\ E
25 o 16\ N
34 o 46\ E
25 o 10\ N
34 o 50\ E
25 o 3\ N
34 o 54\ E
24 o 54\ N
34 o 58\ E
24 o 49\ N
34 o 59\ E
24 o 26\ N
35 o 12\ E
24 o 21\ N
35 o 17\ E
24 o 13\ N
35 o 24\ E
23 59\ N
35 40\ E
Carbonate %
Sand %
Mud
%
Nomenclature
12.41
86.83
0.76
Calcareous sand
11.99
86.41
1.6
Calcareous sand
43.69
54.72
1.6
Calcareous sand
68.84
30.58
0.58
Sandy carbonate
43.59
55.49
0.92
Calcareous sand
66.18
33.13
0.7
Sandy carbonate
57.42
41.57
1.01
Sandy carbonate
39.77
58.42
1.51
Calcareous sand
51.4
46.44
2.16
Sandy carbonate
54.99
43.16
1.85
Sandy carbonate
26.11
73.35
0.54
Calcareous sand
16.09
82.61
1.3
Calcareous sand
38.23
59.65
2.12
Calcareous sand
69.24
29.67
1.09
Sandy carbonate
96.78
2.83
0.33
carbonate
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J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
% of Fractions
Carbonate
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sand
Mud
Beach sites
Fig. 4: Showing the compositioal analysis of the study area
In ELTormocy site south the Mersa Um Gheig site also increased with time ( 0.3 sq. miles in 2000 and 0.43
sq. miles in 2012) (Fig. 5). In Wadi Mubarak the suface areas increased with time (1.04 sq. miles in 2000 and
1.6 sq. miles in 2012) (Fig 6 ). In Wadi Abu Dabbab and Mersa Shakra, the surface areas of the coastal plain
from 2000 to 2012 are the same without any changes, where the surface areas are 0.18 and 0.36 respectively
(Fig. 6). Finally in Wadi ELGemal, the suface areas are increased also (1.7 sq. miles in 2000 and 3.6 sq. miles in
2012)(Fig. 6).
(A)
(B)
Fig. 5: Show the sedimentation in the Um Gheig and El Tormocy sites in satellite image 2000 (A) and satellite
image 2012 (B)
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J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Fig. 6: Show the sedimentation in the Wadi Mubarak site in satellite image 2000 (A) and satellite image 2012
(B), in the Wadi Abu Dabbab site in satellite image 2000 (C) and satellite image 2012 (D) and in the
Wadi ELGemal site in satellite image 2000 (E) and satellite image 2012 (F)
5867
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Heavy minerals in the study area:
The identified heavy minerals in the study area are represented by; non-opaque minerals including;
amphiboles, epidotes, rutile, garnet, Staurolite, Muscovite, Chlorite, and zircon in addition to opaque minerals.
Heavy minerals studied in the fine and very fine sand fractions. But the averages percents of heavy minerals
(Table. 2) are interpreted as following:
The average percentages of Opaques (Table. 2 and Fig. 7) in the study area are range from 10.05 % in Wadi
Abu Dabaab to 75.69 % in Mersa Um Gheig. The average percentages of non-opaques (Table. 2 and Fig. 8) as
following:
Average percents of Amphibole are range from 21.12% in Mersa Um Gheig to 87.38 % in Wadi Abu
Dabaab. Average percentages of Epidote are range from 1.80% in Mersa Um Gheig to 9.85% in Sharm ELFaqiri. Average percentages of Staurolite are range from 0.00% in Mersa Um Gheig, Wadi Um Laseifa, Wadi
Abu Dabaab, Wadi Igla, Sharm EL-Faqiri and Wadi Malek ELAud to 0.65% in Wadi Um Tundoba. Zircon
average percentages are range from 0.6% in Wadi Abu Dabaab to 2.8% in Wadi Um Areik. Muscovite average
percentages are range from 0.00 % in Mersa Um Gheig, Wadi Um Greifat, Wadi Waseat, Wadi Abu Dabaab,
Wadi Samadai, Wadi Um Tundoba, Wadi Ghadir, Sharm EL-Faqiri, Wadi EL-Gemal and Wadi Malek ELAud
to 0.6% in Wadi Mubarak. Chlorite average percentages are 0.00% in most of sites except in Mersa Um Gheig,
Um Greifat, Wadi Mubarak and Wadi Ghadir. Garnet average percentages are range from 0.00% in Mersa Um
Gheig, Wadi Um Greifat, Wadi Um Areik, Wadi Abu Dabaab, Wadi Igla, Wadi Samadai and Wadi Ghadir to
1.1% in Wadi Um Laseifa. Rutile average percentages are 0.00% in all sites except in Wadi Greifat (0.07%) and
Wadi Mubarak (0.07%) (Table. 2).
The opaques/non-opaques Ratio (O/N-O) (Table. 2 and Fig. 9) were studied. The highest ratio of O/N-O is
recorded in Mersa um Gheig (3.11) and the lowest ratio presented in Wadi Abu Dabaab (0.11). The lowest
O/NO value was recorded at many localities (Table. 2) due to the source rocks of these localities are mainly
metavolcanic and metagabbro. The highest O/N-O value was recorded some localities (Table. 2) due to the
highest occurrence of the opaque minerals, where the source rocks are mainly magmatic and metamorphic rocks
rich in opaque minerals.
According to the density, the heavy minerals classified into two group, the first group consists of
amphiboles, Epidotes, Staurolite, Muscovite and Chlorite, while the second group is consists of rutile, garnet,
zircon and opaques. Minerals of the second group have higher densities than minerals of the first group and are
also smaller in size than first group. The Minerals of the second group (higher densities) are difficult to transport
by currents, waves and winds, while the minerals of the first group (lower densities) are easy transported by
currents, waves and winds. In the samples of the studied areas showing that the first group heavy minerals
(lower densities) are highly occurred in fine sand fraction while the second group heavy minerals (higher
densites) are highly occurred in very fine fraction (Table. 2).
Factors controlling variation of heavy minerals on regional bases are discussed by several authors (Davies
and Moore, 1970; Flores and Shideler, 1978; Soliman, 1992; and others). They commented that the variation
may be due to the following factors: 1) Petrographic nature of source rock and its local variability, 2) Selective
chemical decomposition at the source and at the site of deposition, 3) Differential mechanical destruction during
transportation and 4) Hydraulic fractionation by size, shape and Density. Thus heavy minerals have a great
value in solving many problems related to depositional environment as; lithology of source rocks, transportation
history, climates and relief, correlation, paleogeography, tectonism and provenance studies (Folk,1980).
The Opaques (Fig. 7) have highest values in Mersa Um Gheig, Wadi Ghadir,Wadi Um Tundoba, Wadi
Malek ELAud, Wadi ELGemal and Wadi Um Laseifa where the source rocks of these areas are mainly
magmatic and metamorphic rocks. Also Opaques may be high due to the winnowing action of waves at the
beach and tidal flat zones and the highest effect of the land filling (Dar,2002).
Abundance of Amphiboles Wadi Abu Dabbab, Wadi Waseat, Wadi Mubarak, Wadi Igla, Wadi Um Greifat
and Wadi Um Areik due to the disintegrated Precambrian basic metavolcanic rocks or from sedimentary rocks
near the study area. The relatively high occurrence of ultrastable minerals (zircon, rutile, garnet) in Um Laseifa,
Wadi ELGemal, Wadi Um Greifat and Wadi Areik derived from the near sedimentary succession along the
study area. According to Dar, (1998) presence of high percentage of metastable minerals (Minerals may not be
stable) dominates a continuous supply of fresh sediments from the Red Sea Mountains.
Chlorite is common as a secondary mineral, forming after mafic minerals, in rocks of many types. It may
also be a primary mineral in low- to medium-grade metamorphic rocks. In the study area occur in many areas
such as Wadi Ghadir and Wadi Mubarak due to the presence of metamorphic rocks as the source rock or by the
effect of physical marine processes as waves and currents along the coastal area.
Muscovite is the most common mica, found in granites, pegmatites, gneisses, and schists, , associated with
quartz and feldspars,and as a contact metamorphic rock or as a secondary mineral resulting from the alteration
of topaz, feldspar, kyanite. In the study area, it occur specially in Wadi Mubarak, its presence due to the
presence of granite and other metamorphic rocks or due to the effect of physical marine processes as waves and
currents along the coastal area.
5868
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Staurolite is a regional metamorphic mineral of intermediate to high grade. It occurs with almandine garnet,
micas, kyanite; as well as albite, biotite, and sillimanite in gneiss and schist of regional metamorphic rocks. In
the study area, it occur specially in Wadi Um Tundoba and Wadi Greifat due to the presence of granite and other
metamorphic rocks or due to the effect of physical marine processes as waves and currents along the coastal
area.
Epidote is an abundant rock-forming mineral, but one of secondary origin. It occurs in marble and schistose
rocks of metamorphic origin. It is also a product of hydrothermal alteration of various minerals (feldspars,
micas, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and others) composing igneous rocks. In the study area, it occur
ecpeically in Sharm ELFaqiri, Malek ELAud, Wadi Mubarak and Wadi ELGemal due to mainly the presence of
the metamorphic rocks or also due to the effect of physical marine processes as waves and currents along the
coastal area.
Finally, On beaches, heavy minerals are often concentrated in rather localized spots, usually in the swash
zone of the wave run-up or at eroding cliffs (Meijer et al., 2001). According to Carranza-Edwards et al. (2001),
the heavy minerals content is not related to grain size, sorting, or sand provenance.
The distribution of heavy minerals could be controlled by inland sources and probably related to settling
conditions of particles and local sedimentological processes. The studied sediments are derived from different
sources. Acidic igneous rocks are the main sources of the ultrastable heavy minerals such as zircon and rutile.
The metamorphic sources are evidenced by the presence of epidotes, bluish green amphiboles, in addition to
garnet. Garnet, epidotes, and zircon are indicative of high-rank metamorphic rocks.
Amphiboles are minerals of either igneous or metamorphic origin; in the former case occurring as
constituents (hornblende) of igneous rocks, such as granite, diorite, andesite and others. Calcium is sometimes a
constituent of naturally occurring amphiboles. Those of metamorphic origin include examples such as those
developed in limestones by contact metamorphism (tremolite) and those formed by the alteration of other
ferromagnesian minerals (hornblende). Pseudomorphs of amphibole after pyroxene are known as uralite.
Amphiboles in the study area are probably derived from calc-alkaline granitoids or metamorphic rocks. Opaques
may be derived from magmatic and metamorphic rocks as well as sedimentary rocks. The writers believe that
the variation in the relative abundance of the main heavy minerals along the studied coast is due to both the
differences in sources and the effect of physical marine processes as waves and currents along the coastal area
as well as local sedimentological processes
Fig. 7: The average percentages of Opaques in the study area
Wad
i
ElG
ema
51.7
6
40.1
35
Wadi
Male
k El
Oud
55.6
1
35.2
3
55.26
Wad
i
Gha
dir
65.5
4
37.13
26.5
Shar
m
elfa
qiri
38.7
3
48.9
6
2.84
5.06
4.37
9.85
5.30
6.56
0.00
0.245
0.65
0.40
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.85
1.84
1.63
2.32
1.99
2.66
2.36
0.09
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.83
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.26
0.000
0.00
0.00
0.46
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.22
0.00
0.36
0.66
1.23
1.90
0.63
1.07
1.25
Wadi
Igla
26.4
8
69.3
0
Wadi
Sama
dai
40.08
5
54.99
5
3.26
Wadi
Um
Tund
oba
as
Ba
nas
Mainly Carbonates
Table 2: Showing the Average Heavy Minerals percent in the study area
Wadi
Wadi Wadi Wadi
Mers
Heav
abu
Wadi
Wadi
um
Um
a um Um
y
Daba
Muba Wase
Lasei Greif Arei
Miner Ghei
ab
at
rak
k
at
fa
g
al
Opaq
47.8
34.9
37.9
10.0
ues
75.69 5
0
9
28.68 29.15
5
Amph
45.8
59.7
55.3
87.3
ibole
21.12 0
2
8
62.89 63.42
8
Epido
te
1.80
3.13
4.08
3.46
5.33
4.73
1.97
Staur
olite
0.00
0.00
0.62
0.16
0.595 0.235
0.00
Zirco
n
1.18
1.97
0.52
2.83
1.495 2.315
0.6
Musc
0.16
ovite
0.00
0.14
0.00
5
0.605 0.00
0.00
Chlor
ite
0.20
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.255 0.00
0.00
Garne
t
0.00
1.10
0.00
0.00
0.075 0.155
0.00
Rutile 0.00
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.075 0.00
0.00
O/NO
3.11
0.91
0.53
0.61
0.40
0.41
0.11
5869
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Fig. 8: The average percentages of non-opaques of the study area
Fig. 9: Showing O/N-O ratio of the study area
Heavy Metals in the study area:
Heavy metals is a general collective term which applies to the group of metals and metalloids with atomic
density greater than 4 g/cm3 or 5 times or more, greater than water (Nriagu and Pacyna, 1988; Hawkes, 1997).
In the last four decades, the industrial and human activities in the coastal area of Egypt have increased
dramatically and resulted in the continuous invasion of different types of pollutants including heavy metals.
Human Activities have brought numerous potentially hazardous trace elements to the environment particularly
in the industrial period (Nriago,1996).
The concentration and distribution of ten metals (Ba, Sr, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sc, V, Y and Mo) (Table. 3) were
determind to understand the effect of impact action on the quality of marine sediments. Samples were analyzed
in marine sediments from Marsa Um Gheig in the as a north limit of the study area to Ras Banas as the southern
limit of the study area (Table 3).
According to El-Taher and Madkour, (2011) The behavior of heavy metals in the studied wadies marine
sediments is complex due to seasonal and geographic variations in the terrigenous fluxes by these wadis.
Generally, there is no relation between most heavy metals and depth and distance from shore line. The result is
the high contribution of terrigenous fragments by wadis represents the control factor of increasing heavy metals
where the beach and intertidal zone samples recorded the high values. The study on the concentrations of heavy
metal pollution in the Egyptian Red Sea, over 50 years period (1934–1984), has shown that the concentrations
of most of the heavy metals has increased, due to natural pollution from hot brine pools or due to man-made
pollution from oil, heavy metal mining, discharge of domestic industrial wastes and phosphate mining and
transportation along the Red Sea coastal areas (Hanna, 1992). Phosphate ore dust spilled over into the Sea
during shipping is considered as a continuous source for contaminating the Red Sea coastal environment (IOC,
1997 and Said, 1990).
The contamination factor (CF) (Tomlinson, et al.,1980) in the study area is determined and it defined as the
metal concentration in sediment divided by some background base value for each element. The back- ground
value corresponds to the baseline concentrations reported by Wedepohl, (1995) and is based on element
abundances in sedimentary rocks (shale) of the earth crust. The terminologies used to describe the
5870
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
contamination factor are: CF< 1 low contaminated; 1 < CF < 3 moderate contamination; 3 < CF < 6
considerable contamination and CF > 6 high contamination.
It was observed that CF values (Table. 4, Fig. 10 and 11) in Mersa Um Gheig showing that the
contamination range from low to high contamination, where Sr represent the high contamination, Mo and Ni
represent the considerable contamination, Cu represent the moderate contamination and the other metals
represent the low contamination. In Wadi Um Laseifa, Ba showing the low contamination, Sr, Cu, Zn, Sc, Y and
Mo represent the moderate contamination, while Cr, Ni, V are represent the considerable contamination. In
Wadi Um Greifat, Mo represent the high contamination, Sr represent the considerable contamination, while the
all other metals represent the low contamination. In Wadi Um Areik, Sr the high contamination, Mo represent
considerable contamination, Ni and Cu represent the moderate contamination, while the others represent the low
contamination. In Wadi Mubarak, Ni and Mo represent the considerable contamination, Sr, Cr, Cu, Sc and V
represent the moderate contamination, while the others metals represent low contamination. In Wadi Waseat, Sr
represent considerable contamination, Cu and Mo represent moderate contamination, while the others metals
represent the low contamination. In Wai Abu Dabbab, Sr represent the high contamination, Ni, Cu and Mo
represent the moderate contamination, while the others represent the low contamination.
In Wadi Igla, Sr represent the considerable contamination, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sc, and V represent the moderate
contamination, while the others represent low contamination. In Wadi Samadai, Cr represent the high
contamination, Ni and V represent the considerable contamination ,Sr, Cu, Zn, Sc and Mo represent the
moderate contamination, while the others represent low contamination. In Wadi Um Tundoba, Sr represent the
high contamination, Cr represent the considerable contamination ,Ni, Cu, V and Mo represent the moderate
contamination, while the others represent the low contamination. In Wadi Ghadir, Sr represent considerable
contamination, Mo represent moderate contamination, the others represent the low contamination. In Sharm
ELFaqiri, Sr, Cu, Sc, V and Mo represent the moderate contamination, while the others represent the low
contamination. In Wadi ELGemal, Sr and V represent considerable contamination, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sc, Y and
Mo represent moderate contamination, Ba represent the low contamination. In Wadi Malek ELAud, Sr represent
the high contamination, Ni, Cu and Mo represent the moderate contamination, while the others represent the low
contamination. In Ras Banas,Sr represent the high contamination, Cu and Mo represent the moderate
contamination, while the others represent the low contamination.
The calculated CF’s were found in the following sequences: Sr > Mo > Cr > Ni > Cu > V > Sc > Zn >Y>
Ba for all studied areas (sites). It was noticed that Sr is the major pollutant to cause relatively high pollution load
while Y, Zn and Ba is the least metals to influence the pollution load.
Pollution load index (PLI) was computed according to Tomlinson et al. (1980) from the following equation:
PLI = (CF1 × CF2 × . . . . . . . . . . CFn) 1/n
Where:
PLI = pollution load index CF = contamination factor n = number of metals investigated
The Pollution Load Index (PLI) (Table. 4 , Fig. 11) was calculated for the fifteen site in the study area
under investigation, for the ten investigated metals (Ba, Sr, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sc, V, Y and Mo). The highest PLI
was computed for Wadi Um Laseifa (1.94), followed by Wadi Samadi (1.75), followed by Wadi Um Tundoba,
Wadi Mubarak and Wadi Igle (1.4, 1.34 and 1.15 respectively) while the lowest values were calculated for Ras
Banas, Wadi Ghadir and Um Greifat. Thus the Wadi Um Laseifa is the most polluted area, while Ras Banas,
Wadi Ghadir and Um Greifat are the least compared to other areas.
Adverse biological effects:
Increasing the values of many heavy metals may cause highly toxic and chronic effects on living
organisms. Elevated concentrations of heavy metals in sediments could cause detrimental effects to benthic
organisms as well as other aquatic organisms. In the present study, concentration of metals especially Cu, Zn,
Cr and Ni are compared to the Effects-Range Low (ERL) and Effects-Range Median (ERM) concentration
guidelines derived from the database of Long et al. (1995) to understand the extent of contamination (Table 5).
Concentrations below the ERL value are rarely associated with biological effects while, those equal/or above the
ERL, but below the ERM, indicate a possible range in which effects would occasionally occur. The
concentrations equivalent to and above ERM values indicates that the effects would occur frequently.
In the study area the Most of Cr concentration (Table. 3) in the study area below the ERL (81) of Long et
al. (1995) except in three area (site) Wadi Samadai, Um Tundoba and Wadi Mubarak it range between ERL and
ERM (370) (Table. 5) of Long et al. (1995). Ni concentration (Table. 3) is over the limited value of ERM (51.6)
in Mersa Um Gheig, Wadi Laseifa, Wadi Mubarak and Wadi Samadai, and it between ERL and ERM in Wadi
Malek ELAud, Um Tundoba, Wadi Igla and Wadi Areik, as well as it below the ERL (20.9) in Wadi Greifat,
Wadi Waseat, Wadi Abu Dabbab, Wadi Ghadir, Sharm ELFaqiri, Wadi ELGemal and Ras Banas. Cu
concentration (Table. 3) in all areas below the ERL (34) (Table. 5), except in Wadi ELGemal it range between
ERL and ERM(270) (Long et al. 1995 ). Zn concentration (Table. 3) in all the study areas below the ERL (150)
5871
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
(Table. 5). Neither the ERL nor the ERM predicts the likelihood that a particular concentration will or will not
be found with a co-occurring effect ( Long et al. 1995)
Table 3: Show the heavy metals concentration of the study area
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Name
Location
Mersa um
Gheig
Wadi Um
Laseifa
Um
Greifat
Wadi um
Areik
Wadi
Mubarak
Wadi
Waseat
Wadi abu
Dabaab
25o
34o
25o
34 o
25 o
34 o
25 o
34 o
25 o
34 o
25 o
34 o
25 o
34 o
25 o
34 o
25 o
34 o
24 o
34 o
24 o
34 o
24 o
35 o
24 o
35 o
Wadi Igla
Wadi
Samadai
Wadi Um
Tundoba
Wadi
Ghadir
Sharm
elfaqiri
Wadi
ElGemal
Wadi
Malek El
Oud
Ras Banas
Heavy Metal (ppm)
Ba
Sr
Cr
Ni
Cu
Zn
Sc
V
Y
Mo
79.8
2740
30.3
67.9
26.6
16.6
2.8
25
2.1
6
107
589
160
67.5
28.8
77.1
17.6
277
38.3
3
170
1880
12.5
0.00
10.5
22.2
1.9
18.5
6.9
16
120
2070
4.5
35.6
20.5
13.5
1.1
9.1
2
7
309
548
82.3
75.9
33.4
44.1
7.3
58.2
6.7
5
148
1640
20.6
16.3
21.5
12.3
2.7
21.5
1.4
4
120
2120
33
20.8
14.7
28.8
5.6
41.9
5.2
2
159
1450
49.4
40.6
24
57.5
7.1
55.2
9.2
2
149
897
250
103
33.6
58.1
10.3
192
11.5
2
150
2690
133
45.3
21
50.6
4.4
83.1
17.6
2
315
1360
7.7
0.00
10.4
10.3
1.1
0.6
0.00
2
136
688
23.4
11.9
20.3
32.1
7.1
53.2
7.3
2
117
1420
71.5
20.5
34.5
94.4
14.3
201
21.4
2
24 13 N
35 o 24\ E
91.6
2800
8.1
36.1
25.6
9.7
1.7
14.7
0.6
4
23 59\ N
35 40\ E
10.1
2310
0.00
0.00
14.9
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2
43\ N
33\ E
41\ N
27\ E
36\ N
36\ E
35\ N
36\ E
30\ N
39\ E
23\ N
42\ E
16\ N
46\ E
10\ N
50\ E
3\ N
54\ E
54\ N
58\ E
49\ N
59\ E
26\ N
12\ E
21\ N
17\ E
o
\
Table 4: showing the Pollution Loading Index (PLI) and Contamination Factors (CF) of theheavy metals
Contamination Factor (CF) of the Heavy Metals
Area
PLI
Ba
Sr
Cr
Ni
Cu
Zn
Sc
V
Y
Mo
Mersa um Gheig
Wadi
Um
Laseifa
Um Greifat
0.83
0.11
8.67
0.86
3.57
1.9
0.31
0.4
0.47
0.1
4.28
1.94
0.16
1.86
4.57
3.55
2.05
1.48
2.51
5.22
1.82
2.14
0.00
0.25
5.94
0.35
0.00
0.75
0.42
0.27
0.34
0.32
11.42
Wadi um Areik
0.50
0.17
6.55
0.12
1.87
1.46
0.25
0.15
0.17
0.09
5
Wadi Mubarak
1.34
0.46
1.73
2.35
3.99
2.38
0.84
1.04
1.09
0.31
3.57
Wadi Waseat
Wadi
abu
Dabaab
Wadi Igla
0.59
0.22
5.18
0.58
0.85
1.53
0.23
0.38
0.40
0.06
2.85
0.83
0.17
6.70
0.94
1.09
1.05
0.55
0.8
0.79
0.24
1.42
1.15
0.23
4.58
1.41
2.13
1.71
1.10
1.01
1.04
0.43
1.42
Wadi Samadai
Wadi
Um
Tundoba
Wadi Ghadir
1.75
0.22
2.83
7.14
5.42
2.4
1.11
1.47
3.62
0.54
1.42
1.4
0.22
8.51
3.8
2.38
1.5
0.97
0.62
1.56
0.83
1.42
0.00
0.47
4.30
0.22
0
0.742
0.19
0.15
0.01
0.00
1.42
Sharm elfaqiri
0.77
0.20
2.17
0.66
0.62
1.45
0.61
1.01
1.00
0.34
1.42
Wadi ElGemal
Wadi Malek El
Oud
Ras Banas
1.56
0.17
4.49
2.04
1.07
2.46
1.81
2.04
3.79
1.01
1.42
0.5
0.13
8.86
0.23
1.9
1.82
0.18
0.24
0.27
0.02
2.85
0.00
0.01
7.31
0.00
0.00
1.06
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.42
5872
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Table 5: show the ERL and ERM of Long et al. (1995)
Heavy Metal
ERL (Effects Range-Low)
CHROMIUM
CR
81
COPPER
CU
34
NICKEL
NI
20.9
ZINC
ZN
150
ERM (Effects Range-Median)
370
270
51.6
410
Contamination Factor (CF) in Mersa um Gheig
Contamination Factor (CF) in Wadi Um Laseifa
10
10
5
5
0
0
Mo Y
V
Mo Y
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Contamination Factor (CF) Um Greifat
V
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Contamination Factor (CF) in Wadi um Areik
10
15
10
5
0
5
0
Mo Y
V
Mo Y
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
V
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Contamination Factor (FC) in Wadi Waseat
Contamination Factor (CF) in Wadi Mubarak
6
6
4
2
0
4
2
0
Mo Y
V
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Mo Y
V
Sc Zn Cu Ni
Cr
Sr Ba
Contamination Factor (CF) in Wadi Igla
Contamination Factor (CF) in Wadi abu Dabaab
6
10
4
5
2
0
0
Mo Y
V Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Mo Y
V
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr
Sr Ba
5873
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Contamination Factor (CF) in Wadi Samadai
Contamination Factor (CF) in
Wadi Um Tundoba
10
10
5
5
0
0
Mo Y
Mo Y
V Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
V
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Fig. 10: Showing the Contamination Factors (CF) of the study area
Contamination Factor (CF)
in Wadi Ghadir
Contamination Factor (CF)
Sharm elfaqiri
4
5
2
0
0
Mo Y
V Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Mo Y
Contamination Factor (CF)
in Wadi ElGemal
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Contamination Factor (CF)
in Wadi Malek El Oud
5
10
0
0
Mo Y
V
Mo Y
V Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
V
Sc Zn Cu Ni Cr Sr Ba
Contamination Factor (CF)
in Ras Banas
10
5
0
Mo
Y
V
Sc
Zn
Cu
Ni
Cr
Sr
Ba
Contamination Factor (CF) of the all sites in the study area
Mo
Y
V
Sc
Zn
Cu
Ni
Cr
Sr
Ba
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5874
J. Appl. Sci. Res., 8(12): 5860-5876, 2012
Pollution load index (PLI) of the study area
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1.94
1.75
1.34
0.83
0.5
0
0.599
0.833
1.15
1.56
1.4
0.779
0
0.5
0
Fig. 11: Showig the Cotamination Factors (CF) and Pollution Load Index (PLI) of the study area
Conclusions:
1- The coastal plain is a low topographic feature of a variable width ranging between 1 km as in Wadi
Samadai to more than 5 km as in Wadi Um Greifat
2- The beach in the study area range from sand to carbonate beach, where the carbonates fraction is
strongly occurring in the Ras Banas, Wadi Areik and Wadi Waseat as well as in Abu Dabbab. The sand fraction
strongly presented in Mersa Um Gheig, Wadi Laseifa, Wadi Ghadir, Wadi ELGemal and Sharm ELFaqiri.
3- The distribution of these sediment along the coastal area depend on the source rocks, the effect of
physical marine processes as waves and currents along the coastal area as well as the local sedimentary
conditions of each site in the study area.
4- The distribution of heavy minerals could be controlled by inland sources and probably related to
settling conditions of particles and local sedimentological processes
5- The Opaques have highest values in Mersa Um Gheig, Wadi Ghadir,Wadi Um Tundoba, Wadi Malek
ELOud, Wadi ELGemal and Wadi Um Laseifa where the source rocks of these areas are mainly magmatic and
metamorphic rocks. Also Opaques may be high due to the winnowing action of waves at the beach and tidal flat
zones and the highest effect of the landfilling (Dar,2002).
6- According to the density, the heavy minerals classified into two group, the first group consists of
amphiboles, Epidotes, Staurolite, Muscovite and Chlorite (lower densities), while the second group is consists of
rutile, garnet, zircon and opaques (higher densites). The first group heavy minerals (lower densities) are highly
occurred in fine sand fraction while the second group heavy minerals (higher densites) are highly occurred in
very fine fraction.
7- Abundance of Amphiboles Wadi Abu Dabbab, Wadi Waseat, Wadi Mubarak, Wadi Igla, Wadi Um
Greifat and Wadi Um Areik due to the disintegrated Precambrian basic metavolcanic rocks or from sedimentary
rocks near the study area.
8- The relatively high occurrence of ultrastable minerals (zircon, rutile, garnet) in Um Laseifa, Wadi
ELGemal, Wadi Um Greifat and Wadi Areik derived from the near sedimentary succession along the study area.
According to Dar, (1998) presence of high percentage of metastable minerals (Minerals may not be stable)
dominates a continuous supply of fresh sediments from the Red Sea Mountains.
9- The contamination in the study area range from low to high contamination according to the calculated
Contamination Factors of heavy metals.
10- The Pollution Load Index (PLI) showing that Wadi Um Laseifa is the most polluted area, while Ras
Banas, Wadi Ghadir and Um Greifat are the least
11- Large sectors of the Egyptian coasts of the Red Sea have been developed into beach resorts. It is
estimated that the Red Sea coast will attract more than one million tourists during the next years
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