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Journal of Applied Science and Agriculture, 10(5) Special 2015, Pages: 97-103
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JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCIENCE AND
AGRICULTURE
ISSN 1816-9112
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Rice Bran Water Extraction through Autoclaving and Sonication: Protein Content and
Amino Acid Profile
1
Nurul Izzah Abdul Rahim, 2Noor Azian Morad and 3Kamariah Long
1
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Japan International Institute of Technology, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malayisa.
Professor, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Centre of Lipids Engineering and Advanced Research, Malaysia Japan International Institute of
Technology, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
3
Doctor, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Biotechnology Research Centre, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
2
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received 31 December 2014
Received in revised form 26 January
2015
Accepted 28 January 2015
Available online 11 February 2015
Keywords:
Rice Bran Protein
Amino Acids Water Extraction
Sonication
ABSTRACT
Rice bran is one of the co-products from rice milling process that has high protein
content among many other beneficial minerals and nutrients. Recently there are a
few novel water-based extraction methods introduced such as subcritical and
hydrothermal extraction. However simpler methods of water extract such as
autoclaving and sonication can produce comparable results. Therefore in this study,
a method is introduced to extract protein from raw rice bran by mixing full-fat
unstabilized rice bran with water (5%, w/v) and autoclaved at 140 °C for 15, 30, 45
and 60 min. Soluble protein content and amino acid profile of the extracts were
analyzed. 60 min autoclaving time produced extract with the best soluble protein
content of 8.41 g/100g ±0.022 and the best amino acid profile with highest content
of essential and conditional amino acids, 1.64 g/100g ±0.002 and 1.40 g/100g
±0.001, respectively .Therefore this selected extract was further treated by
sonicating the rice bran-water mixture for 5 min before or/and after the
autoclaving. Based on the soluble protein content results, combination with
sonication does not improve protein extraction.
© 2015 AENSI Publisher All rights reserved.
To Cite This Article: Nurul Izzah Abdul Rahim, Noor Azian Morad and Kamariah Long., Rice Bran Water Extraction through Autoclaving
and Sonication: Protein Content and Amino Acid Profile. J. Appl. Sci. & Agric., 10(5): 97-103, 2015
INTRODUCTION
Rice Bran, or Oryza sativa, is one of the byproducts of paddy milling process in producing
polished white rice (Parrado et al., 2006). Rice bran
with its main components; protein, carbohydrate, fat,
fiber, and ash, is also rich in nutrients with different
types of vitamins, minerals and antioxidants (AbdulHamid et al., 2007; Parrado et al., 2006).
Generally, rice bran possesses considerably high
content of protein ranging from 9 to 38% depending
on the method of rice bran preparation and extraction
(Ali et al., 2010; Chittapalo and Noomhorm, 2009;
Juliano, 1985; Parrado et al., 2006; Prakash and
Ramanathan, 1994; Sharma et al. 2004; Shih et al.,
1999; Xia et al., 2012). Protein of rice bran is
appraised as a high-grade protein due to variation of
amino acids and types of protein in the crude extract
(Madsen, 2008; Saunders, 1990). Proteins and its
building blocks, amino acids, are one of the crucial
components in human diet due to its numerous
functions in many parts of human body system
including other amino acids, proteins and enzymes
production, cell growth, immune system, tissues and
organs supports and many others. (Chaitow et al.,
1991). In addition, proteins of rice bran has high
hypoallerginicity (Ali et al., 2010; Chandi and Sogi,
2007; Tsuji et al., 2001) besides showing a great
potential as an anti-cancer agent in preventing and
controlling cancers (Ali et al., 2010, Fan et al., 2000;
Kannan et al., 2010). Prakash (1996) also has valued
the wide-ranged potentials of rice bran protein to be
used in various kinds of food.
Protein is widely known as a sensitive
macronutrient that can easily be denatured and
hydrolyzed under various situations when exposed to
certain conditions of temperature, pH and salt
concentration. There are many different methods of
hydrolyzing proteins including usage of heat,
pressure, solvents and enzymes. For years protein has
been extracted using alkali solvents that are not only
harmful to the environment but also for people. This
is due to composition changes of extracted materials
under high pH condition, which cause reduced
nutrients, benefits and functionalities (Kinsella,
1981) as well as create toxic compounds which is
Corresponding Author: Noor Azian Morad: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Centre of Lipids Engineering and
Advance Research, Malaysia Japan International Institute of Technology, 54100. Kuala Lumpur.
Malaysia.
Tel: +60326154317; E-mail: [email protected]
98
Nurul Izzah Abdul Rahim et al, 2015
Journal of Applied Science and Agriculture, 10(5) Special 2015, Pages: 97-103
unsafe for consumption (Ali et al., 2010). As for
enzymatic extraction, although there are many
studies that have proven its ability to extract high
amount of high-quality protein (Hamada, 1998;
Hamada, 2000; Hanmoungjai et al., 2001;
Hanmoungjai et al., 2002; Tang et al., 2003), this
process is not economically efficient due to the high
cost of enzymes.
Nevertheless, there are a few novel methods that
uses water have been developed for protein
extraction such as subcritical water extraction
(Khuwijitjaru et al., 2007; Pourali et al., 2009;
Sereewatthanawut et al., 2008; Sunphorka et al.,
2012) and hydrothermal cooking (Wang and
Johnson, 2001; Xia et al., 2012), which both are
performed under high temperature and pressure.
These methods have gained lots of interest due to
uses of water that is harmless and more economical
in comparison to other methods. Besides that, there
are also uses pf physical treatment such as blending
(Tang et al., 2002) and sonication (Chittapalo and
Noomhorm, 2009; Tang et al., 2002; Zhu and Fu,
2012) in order to improve protein extraction yield.
Therefore, this study is proposing to combine
different techniques into one protein extraction
process from full-fat unstabilized rice bran that is
environmentally friendly, practical and economical
as well as comparable to other methods. The process
involves cooking of the rice bran in water inside an
autoclave under moderately high temperature (140
°C) and pressure (0.26 MPa) of various durations,
combined by sonication before or/and autoclaving. In
addition, the high temperature during autoclaving is
believed to simultaneously stabilize the rice bran
while extracting protein from it (Pourali et al., 2009).
The total soluble protein content and amino profile
are analyzed to determine the effectiveness of the
proposed extraction method.
1.
Methodology:
Rice Bran. Rice bran used is from paddy variety
MR 219. Fresh rice bran is collected immediately
from polishing within 1 hour from BERNAS factory
in Sekinchan, Selangor, Malaysia and stored in a
freezer under approximately -20 °C.
Chemicals
and
Standard.
Concentrated
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)-free/low nitrogen for protein
analysis (MERCK); Kjeldahl catalyst, high selenium
(Ajax FineChem); 20% (w/v) sodium hydroxide,
NaOH in distilled water (RCI Labscan); 35% (w/v)
sodium hydroxide, NaOH in distilled water (RCI
Labscan); 4% (w/v) boric acid, H3BO3 (MERCK) in
distilled water with bromocresol green (MERCK)
and methyl red (MERCK) indicator solution; 0.2N
37% hydrochloric acid, HCl (MERCK); 2N sodium
hydroxide, NaOH (QREC); 1% (w/v) copper sulfate,
CuSO4.5H2O in distilled water (Fisher Chemical);
2% (w/v) sodium potassium tartrate in distilled water
(QREC); 2% (w/v) sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 in
distilled water (QREC); Folin-Ciocalteu reagent
(Sigma Aldrich); bovine serum albumin, BSA
(Sigma Aldrich). 6N hydrochloric acid, HCl
(MERCK); 12N sodium hydroxide, NaOH in
distilled water (RCI Labscan); AccQ-Fluor Borate
Buffer (Waters); Reconstituted AccQ-Fluor reagent
(Waters); Acetonitrile (MERCK); Formic Acid
(MERCK); Eluent A1 (Waters).
Protein hydrolysis. Raw rice bran (5%, w/v) in
distilled water is autoclaved (Autoclave ALP Model
CL-32L , Japan) in a schott bottle at 140 °C (0.26
MPa) for various time (15, 30, 45 and 60 min). Each
autoclaving time is run in duplicates. Then the rice
bran extract is let to cool down to room temperature
for around 15 min in ice water. After that, the
extracts are again let to cool down to room
temperature in water bath and then centrifuged at
8000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant is collected.
Autoclaving (AC) time that produce extract with
highest soluble protein content and best essential
amino acid profile will be combined with sonication
(Sonic Dismembrator Fisher Scientific Model 500,
USA) at 80% output (320W, 20kHz). The sonication
is fixed at 5 min before (S-AC), after (AC-S) and
both before and after (S-AC-S) autoclaving. Each
combination is run in duplicates. After that, the
extracts are again let to cool down to room
temperature in water bath and then centrifuged at
8000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant is collected.
Protein Content Analysis. Total protein content
of raw rice bran is analyzed in triplicates using
Kjeldahl method (AOAC 981.10.). 0.5 g sample is
added into a 300 ml test tube. The samples are
digested (Heating Digestor VELP Scientifica Model
DK 20, Italy) and then analysed using an Automatic
Steam Distillation & titration Unit (VELP Scientifica
Model UDK 152, Italy) to determine the amount of
nitrogen. 0.2M HCl is used as the titrant. The
nitrogen converting factor used for rice bran is 5.95.
Soluble protein content is the amount of protein
extracted and soluble in the water. Soluble protein
content of the collected supernatants is analyzed
using Lowry assay (Lowry et al., 1951) and BSA as
the protein standard. Each sample is analyzed in
duplicates. All simples’ absorbance value are read at
750 nm (UV-VIS Spectrophotometer Scinco Model
2-1300, Korea). Protein recovery is calculated based
on equation below;
Protein recovery (%) = (soluble protein / total
protein) x 100
Amino Acid Profile. Each sample is analyzed in
duplicates. For sample preparation, 0.5 g (raw rice
bran) or 1.0g (extract supernatant) is weighted into a
test tube, 5 ml of 6N HCl is added to each tube and
then digested under 110 °C for 24 hours. After the
samples have cooled down to room temperature, pH
of each sample is adjusted between 4.8 to 5.2 and
then filled up to 50 ml (solid) or 20 ml (water
extract) with distilled water. Then, around 1 to 2 ml
of each sample is filtered through 0.22μm syringe
filter. After that, the samples are further processed
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Journal of Applied Science and Agriculture, 10(5) Special 2015, Pages: 97-103
and analyzed by ultra-performance liquid
chromatography (UPLC, Waters) and a C18 column
(Waters) using a method developed by Koh et al.
(2012).
Results:
Total protein content of raw rice bran powder
obtained is 13.09 ± 0.0g/100g. This is in the range of
10-38 % protein obtained from other work on rice
bran using various methods (Ali et al., 2010; Juliano,
1985; Parrado et al., 2006; Shih et al., 1999).
Protein Hydrolysis through Autoclaving. Based
on Table 1, Soluble protein content of autoclaved
mixture of rice bran and water at 15, 30, 45 and 60
min were 6.65 ± 0.035 g/100g, 7.19 ± 0.023 g/100g,
7.66 ± 0.014 g/100g and 8.41 ± 0.022 g/100g, giving
protein recovery 50.77%, 54.95%, 58.55% and
64.21%, respectively. From this data, the highest
soluble protein was obtained in the 60 min water
extract. Through autoclaving for 60 min also, highest
amino acid content was obtained (5.30 ± 0.001
g/100g) (Table 2). Among the highest essential
amino acids extracted were leucine (0.31 ± 0.001
g/100g), lysine (0.27 ± 0.001 g/100g) and valine
(0.27 ± 0.001 g/100g) and their recovery rate were
29.81%, 38.57%, and 34.62%, respectively (Table 2).
The highest conditionally essential amino acids
obtained were arginine (0.39 ± 0.001) and glycine
(0.33 ± 0.001) and the recovery rate were 39.40%
and 43.42% respectively. On the other hand,
methionine was the lowest extracted amino acid
(0.05 ± 0.042 g/100g, 26.32%) while cysteine was
not obtained at all.
Protein Hydrolysis through Autoclaving and
Sonication. Since water extract from 60 min
autoclaving had the highest soluble protein and
amino acid content, this treatment was combined
with 5 min sonication in order to investigate the
effect of sonication in improving protein extraction.
From fig. 3, it is shown that combination with
sonication has negatively affected protein hydrolysis.
Soluble protein content for S-AC, AC-S, and S-AC-S
extracts were 7.82 ± 0.059, 8.10 ± 0.035 and 8.33 ±
0.015 g/100g, respectively while their protein
recovery were 59.71%, 61.87% and 63.62%,
respectively.
Table 1: Soluble protein content and protein recovery water extracts of varied autoclaving time.
Autoclaving time (min)
Soluble protein content (g/100g)
Control Stir 60 min
5.39 ± 0.069
AC 15 min
6.65 ± 0.035
AC 30 min
7.19 ± 0.23
AC 45 min
7.66 ± 0.014
AC 60 min
8.41 ± 0.022
Discussion:
Protein hydrolysis through autoclaving. The
results of soluble protein content of autoclaved
samples are comparable to the conventional alkali
extraction which managed to recover 30-80% protein
at pH ranged from 7.0 to 12.0 (Fabian & Ju, 2011)
and 52.5-58.9% protein from rice bran protein
concentrate at pH 9.0 (Chandi & Sogi et al., 2007).
However, it is shown that lysinoalanine, a possible
toxic product (Cheftel et al., 1985), is identified
during strong alkali extraction between pH 10.0 to
12.2 (de Groot & Slump, 1969). Other green methods
such as hydrothermal and subcritical water extraction
have managed to hydrolyze protein by using only
water or steam at high pressure and temperature. Xia
et al. (2012) has recovered 37.4 and 50.0% protein
out of heat-stabilized rice bran at 120 and 150 °C,
respectively, which is comparable to the highest
protein recovery yield in this study, 64.21% at 60
min autoclaving. However, some studies on
subcritical water extraction reported higher recovery
yield of 84% at 220 °C for 30 min (Watchararuji et
al., 2008) and 100% at 250 °C for 60 min
(Sunphorka et al., 2012).
A pattern of increasing soluble protein content
with increasing treatment time is shown in Fig. 1.
This pattern is in agreement with Wang and Johnson
(2001) that claimed during hydrothermal process,
protein solubility is improving with increasing
Protein recovery (%)
41.15
50.77
54.95
58.55
64.21
treatment time. Besides that, studies on rice bran
extraction through subcritical water extraction also
have demonstrated enhancing protein solubility as
the temperature increases, until to a certain time or
temperature limit (Khuwijitjaru et al., 2007;
Sereewatthanawut et al. 2008; Sunphorka et al.,
2012; Watchararuji et al., 2008). Morover, an
increasing amount of total amino acids with
increasing time (Fig. 2) is in agreement with
subcritical water treatment of deoiled rice bran at its
optimum temperature (200 °C) when the amino acid
content rises with time (Sereewatthanawut et al.,
2008).
Furthermore, eight essential amino acids have
managed to be extracted during autoclaving.
Essential amino acids are important because they are
not naturally synthesized by our body and therefore
must be consumed from outside sources, but on the
other hand non-essential amino acids are the readily
produced amino acid in our body system that is
enough (Chaitow et al., 1991) such as food and
supplements. As for the conditionally essential amino
acids, four amino acids were obtained with arginine
and glycine as the highest. This class of amino acid is
needed because of its deficiency under certain age
group or situation such as illness. For instance,
arginine is essential for children besides help to cure
wound faster while glycine is a major amino acid in
the non-essential amino acids production in our
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Journal of Applied Science and Agriculture, 10(5) Special 2015, Pages: 97-103
body, as well as an instrument of detoxification
particularly for liver (Chaitow et al., 1991).
However, the necessity of conditionally essential
amino acids varies to each individual based on his
physiological, metabolic, pathological and nutritional
conditions (Chaitow et al., 1991; Fürst & Stehle,
2004; Jaksic et al., 1991).
Table 2: Amino acids profile of rice bran water extracts at different autoclaving time.
Soluble protein content (g/100g)
Amino Acids
Raw Rice Bran
AC 15 min
AC 30 min
AC 45 min
Essential
Histidine (His)
0.39 ± 0.001
0.10 ± 0.000
0.12 ± 0.000
0.13 ± 0.005
Isoleucine (Ile)
0.52 ± 0.001
0.10 ± 1.656
0.16 ± 0.000
0.19 ± 0.003
Leucine (Leu)
1.04 ± 0.001
0.21 ± 0.002
0.26 ± 0.000
0.29 ± 0.005
Lysine (Lys)
0.70 ± 0.003
0.23 ± 0.002
0.26 ± 0.000
0.27 ± 0.001
Methionine (Met)
0.19 ± 0.001
0.04 ± 0.000
0.04 ± 0.094
0.05 ± 0.037
Phenylalanine (Phe)
0.62 ± 0.001
0.12 ± 0.000
0.15 ± 0.005
0.17 ± 0.003
Threonine (Thr)
0.56 ± 0.002
0.17 ± 0.004
0.20 ± 0.000
0.21 ± 0.002
Valine (Val)
0.78 ± 0.001
0.18 ± 0.000
0.23 ± 0.002
0.25 ± 0.06
Sum
4.79 ± 0.001
1.15 ± 0.009
1.42 ± 0.000
1.57 ± 0.004
Non-essential
Alanine (Ala)
0.93 ± 0.001
0.30 ± 0.001
0.35 ± 0.001
0.38 ± 0.006
Aspartic acid (Asp)
1.38 ± 0.001
0.55 ± 0.003
0.65 ± 0.000
0.68 ± 0.000
Glutamic acid (Glu)
2.16 ± 0.001
0.88 ± 0.002
1.02 ± 0.000
1.07 ± 0.004
Serine (Ser)
0.72 ± 0.001
0.21 ± 0.002
0.26 ± 0.000
0.27 ± 0.005
Sum
5.19 ± 0.001
1.94 ± 0.002
2.28 ± 0.000
2.40 ± 0.003
Conditional
Arginine (Arg)
0.99 ± 0.003
0.31 ± 0.001
0.37 ± 0.001
0.37 ± 0.003
Cysteine (Cys)
0.06 ± 0.005
0.0 ± 0.00
0.00 ± 0.000
0.00 ± 0.000
Tyrosine (Tyr)
0.29 ± 0.001
0.11 ± 0.008
0.14 ± 0.000
0.15 ± 0.004
Glycine (Gly)
0.76 ± 0.002
0.25 ± 0.001
0.30 ± 0.000
0.31 ± 0.001
Proline (Pro)
0.65 ± 0.001
0.16 ± 0.000
0.20 ± 0.000
0.22 ± 0.000
Sum
2.75 ± 0.002
0.83 ± 0.001
1.01 ± 0.000
1.05 ± 0.001
Total amino acids
12.73 ± 0.001
3.91 ± 0.004
4.70 ± 0.000
5.03 ± 0.003
AC 60 min
0.13 ± 0.006
0.20 ± 0.002
0.31 ± 0.001
0.27 ± 0.001
0.05 ± 0.042
0.18 ± 0.000
0.23 ± 0.002
0.27 ± 0.001
1.64 ± 0.002
0.40 ± 0.003
0.73 ± 0.000
1.13 ± 0.001
0.29 ± 0.001
2.55 ± 0.001
0.39 ± 0.001
0.00 ± 0.000
0.16 ± 0.000
0.33 ± 0.001
0.23 ± 0.002
1.11 ± 0.001
5.30 ± 0.001
Fig. 1: Protein recovery for rice bran water extracts autoclaved at varied time durations.
Fig. 2: Soluble protein content from amino acid (a.a.) profile analysis using UPLC at different autoclaving time.
In case of methionine that was least extracted
amounts in the raw rice bran which are 0.19 ± 0.001
and cysteine which was not extracted at all, this
and 0.06 ± 0.005 g/100g, respectively. Besides that,
might be mainly caused by their originally low
both methionine and cysteine are among amino acids
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Journal of Applied Science and Agriculture, 10(5) Special 2015, Pages: 97-103
that are commonly reacting to reducing sugars
through maillard reaction, also known as browning
reaction (Belitz et al., 2009). Based on
Sereewatthanawut et al. (2008), reducing sugars is
present as well as increasing with temperature (120220 °C) and time (5-30 min) in the water extract
treated
under
subcritical
water
condition.
Furthermore, in the presence of the reducing sugars
as reducing agent, water can act as oxidizing agent
thus possibly oxidizes methionine and cysteine that
are readily to be transformed to sulfoxide and
cystine, respectively (Belitz et al., 2009). Moreover,
methionine and cysteine also can form acrylamide in
the presence of glucose at temperature more than 100
°C or prolonged heating. These reactions may be the
causes for reduced amount of methionine and
cysteine extracted (Belitz et al., 2009).
Fig. 3: Protein recovery of rice bran water extracts resulted from combinations between autoclaving (60 min)
and sonication (5min).
AC: 60 min autoclaving; S-AC: Sonication before 60
min AC; AC-S: Sonication after 60 min AC; S-ACS: Sonication before and after 60 min AC.
As for the sonication treatment, Fig. 3
demonstrates negative effect of sonication on the
protein content. Based on a study done by Tang et al.
(2002) on protein extractability from heat-stabilized
defatted rice bran in water by sonication, the protein
recovery increases with increasing power output but
not significant enough. However, sonication that is
applied simultaneously with alkali (Chittapalo and
Noomhorm, 2009; Zhu and Fu, 2012) or buffer
extraction (Messman and Weiss, 1993; Singh et al.,
1990) has been proven to improve extraction
efficiency. Therefore, it can be resolved that a
substantial protein extraction cannot be accomplished
by performing sole or separated sonication.
Simultaneous process of extraction and sonication
maybe further investigated as this is more relevant to
be practiced in industrial scale. This is due to high
loss of production through multiple steps which
reduce yield and efficiency of the extraction process
(Fabian & Ju, 2011).
4. Conclusion:
The protein extraction through autoclaving has
successfully extract protein from rice bran with
relatively high soluble protein content and good
profile of amino acids. The highest protein is
extracted by autoclaving for 60 min that is 8.41 ±
0.022 g/100g with 64.21% recovery. Under the same
treatment, highest amino acid content of each
essential, conditional and non-essential is also
obtained giving the total amino acid of 5.30 ± 0.001
g/100g. However, combination with sonication does
not have positive effect on protein extraction yield.
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