Download Chapter 1: Thinking Geographically

Chapter 1
Thinking Geographically
Human Geography
Attempts to answer the following
questions:
 Where are people and activities
found on Earth?
 Why are they found there?
Maps: Geography’s Most
Important Tool

Maps- two-dimensional or flat-scale
models of the Earth’s surface, or a
portion of it
• A tool for storing reference material and
a tool for communication geographic
information

Cartography- the science of
mapmaking
Maps


Maps can be used
to depict human
activities across
space
A series of maps
can illustrate
change over time
Mapmaking
•Earliest surviving maps were made
by the Babylonians around 2300 BC
•Aristotle was the first to hypothesize
that the Earth was round (300s B.C.)
•Eratosthenes was the first to use the
word geography in around 200 B.C.
•In the 100s A.D., Ptolemy wrote an 8
volume Guide to Geography
Map Scale


Def. – the relationship of a feature’s
size on a map to its actual size on
earth
Can be done as a fraction or ratio
(1/18,000 or 1:18,000), a written
statement (one inch equals one
mile), or a geographic bar scale
Map Scale (cont.)

The larger the scale, the closer the
area of detail
Projection

Def. – scientific method of
transferring locations on Earth’s
surface to a flat map

Always produces some sort of distortion
4 Types of Distortion
1.
2.
3.
4.
Shape distortion- an area appears
elongated or more squat
Distance distortion- distance between
points changes
Relative size distortion- one area may
appear larger or smaller on a map than
another- when in reality it is not
Direction distortion- direction from
one place to another can be distorted
Projection (cont.)

Equal area projections keep the
relative sizes of the landmasses on
the map the same size in reality
• Does cause some shape distortion close
to the poles
The Land Ordinance of 1785

Used to divide land for sale in the
Western United States
• Township- area of land 6 miles by 6
miles

Divided into 36 sections (1mile by 1 mile)
Contemporary Tools
Geographic Information System
(GIS)
 A computer system that can capture,
store, and analyze geographic data
 The position every object on Earth
can be precisely recorded
 Info. can be stored in layers

Ex. Geo-data Explorer
Contemporary Tools (cont.)
Remote Sensing
 Acquisition of data from a satellite
orbiting the earth

Functions much like a scanner
Contemporary Tools (concluded)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
 a system that accurately determines
the precise position of something on
Earth

Most commonly used for navigation
purposes
Place: Unique Location of a
Feature


Location- the position that
something occupies on Earth’s
surface
4 ways to identify location:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Place name
Site
Situation
Mathematical location
Place Names

Toponym- the name given to a
place on Earth
• Might be named after a person, for its
physical features, or after an event that
occurred there

Ex. Greensboro- named after General
Nathaniel Greene
Site
Site- the physical character of a place
Important characteristics include:
climate, water sources, topography,
soil, vegetation, latitude, and
evaluation
Very important factors for
establishing a settlement
Can be modified by humans
Ex. Manhattan
Situation

Situation- the location of a place
relative to other places
• Helps find unfamiliar places by
comparing it to a familiar one


Clemmons is south of Lewisville
Mario’s Pizza is next to Blue Moon
Situation (cont.)

Situation also helps
explain the
importance of a
location
• Singapore has
become an
important trading
center because of
its situation near
the Strait of
Malacca (1/4 of
maritime trade
passes through
each year)
Mathematical Location


Any location on Earth can be
described in terms of meridians and
parallels
Meridians- an arc drawn b/w the
North and South poles
• Location of meridians identified as lines
of longitude
• Measured in degrees East or West from the
Prime Meridian which runs through Greenwich,
England
Mathematical Location (cont.)


Every 15 degrees traveled East or
West is the equivalent of one hour of
time
Parallels are measured in terms of
degrees latitude


Measured in degrees north or south of the
equator
Equator = 0 degrees, N. Pole 90 degrees N, S.
Pole 90 degrees S
Mathematical Location (cont.)

To get more precise each degree can
be divided 60 minutes (“) and each
minute into 60 seconds (‘)
Mathematical Location (cont.)

Latitude is scientifically derived by
Earth’s shape and its rotation around
the sun
• The equator has the largest
circumference and everyday has 12
hours of sunlight
• Every meridian is the same length

Greenwich was only selected as 0
degrees b/c England was the world
power at the time it was created
Latitude and Longitude
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)


Also called Universal Time
Every 15 degrees east of Greenwich
is one hour ahead of GMT, and 15
degrees west of Greenwich is 1 hour
behind GMT

When it’s Noon In London, it’s 7am in
Pfafftown
International Date Line

180 degrees longitude
• Heading East you move the clock back
an entire day (24 hours)
• Heading West you move the clock ahead
24 hours
Regions: Areas of Unique
Characteristics

Region- an area defined by one or
more distinct characteristics
• Derive distinct character from their
cultural landscape
• a combination of cultural features such as
language and religion, economic features
such as agriculture and industry, and
physical features such as climate and
vegetation
Cultural Landscape

Every region has its own distinctive
landscape that results from a
combination of social relationships
and physical processes
• Within each region the people,
activities, and environment will display
similarities that differ from other regions
Types of Regions

Three Types in Geography
1. Formal region- an area within which
everyone shares in common one or
more distinctive characteristics
2. Functional region- an area organized
around a node or focal point
3. Vernacular region- a place that
people believe exists as part of their
cultural identity
Formal Regions



A.k.a uniform or homogeneous
regions
Shared feature could be a cultural
value, and economic activity, or an
environmental property
The feature is present throughout
Formal Regions (cont.)
Sometimes formal regions are
easy to identify- such as a country
or local gov. unit
Other kinds of formal regions
have a predominant characteristic
not a universal one – ex. Wheat
belt
Formal Regions (concluded)


Geographers identify formal regions
to help explain broad global or
national patterns ex.– religious
variation
Must be sure not to undervalue the
diversity of the area when making
these generalizations
Functional Regions

Characteristic used to define the
region dominates at a central focus
or node and diminishes in
importance as you move away from
it
Functional Regions (cont.)

Often used to display economic
information
• Transportation to and from the node is
important in forms of traffic and
information
• Ex. Circulation area of a newspaper

In W-S, the Journal dominates- as you move
East into Kernersville the circulation declines
until you get to a point where just as many
people read the Greensboro News & Record
Functional Regions (concluded)
Other examples would
include the reception area
of a TV or Radio station
and the trading area of a
department store
Vernacular Regions



Arise from a person’s sense of place
rather than scientific models from
geography
AKA a perceptual region
Mental maps are helpful to
understanding vernacular regions
• An internal representation of part of the
Earth’s Surface
• Mental maps contain personal impressions
of what someone knows or thinks about a
place
Vernacular Regions (concluded)

The South is a good example of a
vernacular region
• Most perceive the South as having a
distinct environment, culture, and
economic system from the rest of the
country
Regional Integration of Culture

In thinking about why each region on
Earth’s surface is distinctive
geographers refer to culture

The body of customary beliefs, material
traits, and social forms that together
constitute the distinct tradition of a group of
people
• 2 ways to think about this in geography
• What people care about
• What people take care of
What People Care About


Why do distinctive cultures happen in
a particular place
Geographers are particularly
interested in language, religion, and
ethnicity
Language
Language is a system of
sounds, gestures, and marks
that have meanings understood
within a cultural group
This is how culture is
transmitted from one
generation to the next
The words used in a language
tell us something about where
the culture is located
Religion
Religion
Important because it is the
principal system of
attitudes, beliefs, and
practices through which
people worship in a formal,
organized way
Ethnicity

Encompasses a group’s language,
religion, and other cultural values, as
well as is physical traits
• Produced out of common traditions and
heredity
• Areas that more than one ethnic group
call home are often characterized by
conflict and inequality
Ethnicity
What People Take Care Of


Production of material wealth is also
of interest to geographers
Geographers divide the Earth into
classifications based on how
economically developed an area is



MDCs and LDCs (more developed and less
developed countries
North America, Europe, and Japan are MDCs
Latin America, the Middle East, Southeast
Asia are examples of LDCs
Cultural Ecology: Integrating
Culture and Environment


Environmental factors are also
considered when constructing
regions
Cultural ecology- geographic study
of human-environment relationships
continued

Environmental determinism- the
study of how the physical
environment causes social
development/human activities

Idea pioneered by German geog. Humboldt
and Ritter in 19th century
Human and Physical Factors

Modern geographers reject
environmental determinism in favor
of possibilism


The theory that the physical environment
may set limits on human actions, but people
have the ability to adjust to the physical
environment and choose a course of action
from many possibilities
Ex. People choose to grow wheat in colder,
dry climates because they have learned it is
possible
Physical Processes: Climate


Climate- the long-term average
weather condition at a particular
location
The modified Koppen system divides
the world into 5 main climate regions
identified by the letters A - E
continued
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Tropical Climates
Dry Climates
Warm Mid-Latitude Climates
Cold Mid-Latitude Climates
Polar Climates
Each region is divided into subtypes
based on precipitation, except for B
which is divided by temperature
and precipitation
continued


Relatively few people live in either
the B or E region
The climate greatly influences the
types of activities people do there,
esp. food production
Physical Processes: Vegetation



There are 4 major plant communities
(biomes) on Earth’s land surfaces
Their location and extent are
influenced by both climate and
human activities
The four main biomes are forest,
savanna, grassland, and desert
Forest Biome
•Trees form a continuous
canopy over the ground
•Grasses and shrubs may
grow beneath the canopy
•Biome covers much of NA,
Europe, and Asia as well as
tropical areas of SA, Africa,
and SE Asia
Savanna Biome
•A mixture of trees and
grasses
•Lack of continuous canopy
allows grasses to grow
•Covers large areas of
Africa, South Asia, SA, and
Australia
Grassland Biome
•Covered by grass rather
than trees
•Low precipitation=few
trees
•Ex. Great plains
Desert Biome
•Many desert areas have
almost no vegetation,
however there are
dispersed patches of plants
adapted to dry conditions
•Enough to support a
small # of animals
Physical Processes: Soil



The US Comprehensive Soil
Classification System divides soil
types into 10 orders according to the
characteristics of the immediate
surface soil layers and subsoil
Orders are divided into suborders,
great groups, etc., etc.
More than 12,000 types in US alone
continued

Human geographers concerned with
destruction of soil caused by erosion
and loss of nutrients
Physical Processes: Landforms

Geomorpholgy- the study of Earth’s
landforms
• Helps explain the distribution of people
and the choice of economic activities at
different locations
 Topographic maps are used to study the
slope and relief of localities
continued


Relief- the difference in elevation b/w
any 2 points—measures the extent
to which an area is flat or hilly
Slope-the relief divided by the
distance b/w 2 points
Globalization of the Economy

Globalization- a force or process
that involves the entire world and
results in making something
worldwide in scope
• Means the scale of the world is
shrinking
continued

Globalization of the economy has
been led by transnational
corporations
• a company that does many aspects of
business in multiple countries, not just
where they are headquartered
continued

Every place in the world is part of
the global economy, but globalization
has led to more specialization at the
local level
• Each place tries to use its local assets to
their fullest potential– these places are
then exploited by transnationals
• As a result globalization has heightened
economic differences among places
Globalization of Culture

Increasingly uniform cultural
preferences produce uniform “global”
landscapes of material artifacts and
of cultural values


Ex. McDonald’s is everywhere, and the
restaurants are all very similar
As more people learn about global
culture and desire to obtain the
artifacts of it, local cultural beliefs
are threatened w/ extinction
Space: Distribution of Features

Historians ask when and why
• Geographers ask where and why


Historians cannot travel to the past
to study history, but geographers can
travel from place to place
Distribution- the arrangement of a
feature in space
• 3 main properties—density,
concentration, and pattern
Density

Density- the frequency with which
something occurs in space


Feature being measured could be anything
Arithmetic density- the total
number of objects in an area

Commonly used to compare distribution of
population of diff. countries
• Total pop. Divided by its area

Large pop. Doesn’t have to mean high
density
continued

Physiological density- the # of
people per unit of area suitable for
agriculture
If high, may mean a country will
have a hard time producing enough food


Agricultural density- the # of
farmers per unit area of farmland

If high, may mean a country has inefficient
agriculture
Concentration

Concentration- the extent of a
feature’s spread over space
• If objects in an area are close, they are
clustered
• If they are far apart, they are dispersed


Geographers use concentration to
describe changes in distribution
It is not the same as density

MLB-density up since 1960, concentration
has become more dispersed
Pattern

Pattern- the geometric arrangement of
objects in space


Some features are organized in a geometric pattern,
others irregularly
Many objects form a linear distribution,
while others are commonly arranged in a
square or rectangular pattern


Ex. House on a street (linear)
Ex. Streets on a grid in a planned city (square)
Connections Between Places

Space-time compression- the
reduction in the time it takes for
something to reach another place

It doesn’t take long any more
• Promotes rapid change—culture and
economy of one place reach other
places very rapidly
• Leads to diffusion- exposure to and
adoption of outside cultural influences
Spatial Interaction


Occurs when places are connected
through a network– transportation or
communication
The farther away one group is from
another, the less likely they are to
interact – called distance decay

The internet has made this less likely to
occur
Diffusion



Def.- the process by which a
characteristic spreads across space
from one place to another over time
Hearth- the place from which an
innovation originates
2 types of diffusion—relocation and
expansion
Relocation Diffusion

Def.- the spread of an idea through
physical movement of people from
one place to another
• Helps us understand the distribution of
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) within the US
Expansion Diffusion


Def. – the spread of a feature from
one place to another in a
snowballing process
Results from one of 3 processes
1. Hierarchical Diffusion
2. Contagious Diffusion
3. Stimulus Diffusion
Hierarchical Diffusion

Def- the spread of an idea from
persons or nodes of authority or
power to other persons or places

Political leaders, social elite, or other
important leaders
Contagious Diffusion

Def- the rapid, widespread diffusion
of a characteristic throughout the
population


-much like the spread of a flu bug
No regard for hierarchy and doesn’t require
relcoation of people
Stimulus Diffusion

Def- the spread of an underlying
principle, even though a
characteristic itself apparently fails to
diffuse

Ex. IBM (DOS) vs. MAC (icons) in the early
1980s
Diffusion of Culture and Economy

In global culture and economy,
transportataion and communications
networks have been organized to
rapidly diffuse raw materials, goods
and services, and capital from nodes
or origin to other regions
continued

Global culture and economy are
increasingly centered on three hearth
regions, NA, Western Europe, and
Japan


Control a large % of advanced technology,
investment capital, and wealth to purchase
goods and services
New York, London, and Tokyo are the
World’s leading cities
continued


Africa, Asia, and Latin America
contain ¾ of the World’s pop., but
they are on the periphery of
development
Uneven development- increasing gap
in economic conditions b/w the core
and periphery that results form the
globalization of the economy