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Chapter 1 Thinking Geographically Human Geography Attempts to answer the following questions: Where are people and activities found on Earth? Why are they found there? Maps: Geography’s Most Important Tool Maps- two-dimensional or flat-scale models of the Earth’s surface, or a portion of it • A tool for storing reference material and a tool for communication geographic information Cartography- the science of mapmaking Maps Maps can be used to depict human activities across space A series of maps can illustrate change over time Mapmaking •Earliest surviving maps were made by the Babylonians around 2300 BC •Aristotle was the first to hypothesize that the Earth was round (300s B.C.) •Eratosthenes was the first to use the word geography in around 200 B.C. •In the 100s A.D., Ptolemy wrote an 8 volume Guide to Geography Map Scale Def. – the relationship of a feature’s size on a map to its actual size on earth Can be done as a fraction or ratio (1/18,000 or 1:18,000), a written statement (one inch equals one mile), or a geographic bar scale Map Scale (cont.) The larger the scale, the closer the area of detail Projection Def. – scientific method of transferring locations on Earth’s surface to a flat map Always produces some sort of distortion 4 Types of Distortion 1. 2. 3. 4. Shape distortion- an area appears elongated or more squat Distance distortion- distance between points changes Relative size distortion- one area may appear larger or smaller on a map than another- when in reality it is not Direction distortion- direction from one place to another can be distorted Projection (cont.) Equal area projections keep the relative sizes of the landmasses on the map the same size in reality • Does cause some shape distortion close to the poles The Land Ordinance of 1785 Used to divide land for sale in the Western United States • Township- area of land 6 miles by 6 miles Divided into 36 sections (1mile by 1 mile) Contemporary Tools Geographic Information System (GIS) A computer system that can capture, store, and analyze geographic data The position every object on Earth can be precisely recorded Info. can be stored in layers Ex. Geo-data Explorer Contemporary Tools (cont.) Remote Sensing Acquisition of data from a satellite orbiting the earth Functions much like a scanner Contemporary Tools (concluded) Global Positioning System (GPS) a system that accurately determines the precise position of something on Earth Most commonly used for navigation purposes Place: Unique Location of a Feature Location- the position that something occupies on Earth’s surface 4 ways to identify location: 1. 2. 3. 4. Place name Site Situation Mathematical location Place Names Toponym- the name given to a place on Earth • Might be named after a person, for its physical features, or after an event that occurred there Ex. Greensboro- named after General Nathaniel Greene Site Site- the physical character of a place Important characteristics include: climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, and evaluation Very important factors for establishing a settlement Can be modified by humans Ex. Manhattan Situation Situation- the location of a place relative to other places • Helps find unfamiliar places by comparing it to a familiar one Clemmons is south of Lewisville Mario’s Pizza is next to Blue Moon Situation (cont.) Situation also helps explain the importance of a location • Singapore has become an important trading center because of its situation near the Strait of Malacca (1/4 of maritime trade passes through each year) Mathematical Location Any location on Earth can be described in terms of meridians and parallels Meridians- an arc drawn b/w the North and South poles • Location of meridians identified as lines of longitude • Measured in degrees East or West from the Prime Meridian which runs through Greenwich, England Mathematical Location (cont.) Every 15 degrees traveled East or West is the equivalent of one hour of time Parallels are measured in terms of degrees latitude Measured in degrees north or south of the equator Equator = 0 degrees, N. Pole 90 degrees N, S. Pole 90 degrees S Mathematical Location (cont.) To get more precise each degree can be divided 60 minutes (“) and each minute into 60 seconds (‘) Mathematical Location (cont.) Latitude is scientifically derived by Earth’s shape and its rotation around the sun • The equator has the largest circumference and everyday has 12 hours of sunlight • Every meridian is the same length Greenwich was only selected as 0 degrees b/c England was the world power at the time it was created Latitude and Longitude Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Also called Universal Time Every 15 degrees east of Greenwich is one hour ahead of GMT, and 15 degrees west of Greenwich is 1 hour behind GMT When it’s Noon In London, it’s 7am in Pfafftown International Date Line 180 degrees longitude • Heading East you move the clock back an entire day (24 hours) • Heading West you move the clock ahead 24 hours Regions: Areas of Unique Characteristics Region- an area defined by one or more distinct characteristics • Derive distinct character from their cultural landscape • a combination of cultural features such as language and religion, economic features such as agriculture and industry, and physical features such as climate and vegetation Cultural Landscape Every region has its own distinctive landscape that results from a combination of social relationships and physical processes • Within each region the people, activities, and environment will display similarities that differ from other regions Types of Regions Three Types in Geography 1. Formal region- an area within which everyone shares in common one or more distinctive characteristics 2. Functional region- an area organized around a node or focal point 3. Vernacular region- a place that people believe exists as part of their cultural identity Formal Regions A.k.a uniform or homogeneous regions Shared feature could be a cultural value, and economic activity, or an environmental property The feature is present throughout Formal Regions (cont.) Sometimes formal regions are easy to identify- such as a country or local gov. unit Other kinds of formal regions have a predominant characteristic not a universal one – ex. Wheat belt Formal Regions (concluded) Geographers identify formal regions to help explain broad global or national patterns ex.– religious variation Must be sure not to undervalue the diversity of the area when making these generalizations Functional Regions Characteristic used to define the region dominates at a central focus or node and diminishes in importance as you move away from it Functional Regions (cont.) Often used to display economic information • Transportation to and from the node is important in forms of traffic and information • Ex. Circulation area of a newspaper In W-S, the Journal dominates- as you move East into Kernersville the circulation declines until you get to a point where just as many people read the Greensboro News & Record Functional Regions (concluded) Other examples would include the reception area of a TV or Radio station and the trading area of a department store Vernacular Regions Arise from a person’s sense of place rather than scientific models from geography AKA a perceptual region Mental maps are helpful to understanding vernacular regions • An internal representation of part of the Earth’s Surface • Mental maps contain personal impressions of what someone knows or thinks about a place Vernacular Regions (concluded) The South is a good example of a vernacular region • Most perceive the South as having a distinct environment, culture, and economic system from the rest of the country Regional Integration of Culture In thinking about why each region on Earth’s surface is distinctive geographers refer to culture The body of customary beliefs, material traits, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people • 2 ways to think about this in geography • What people care about • What people take care of What People Care About Why do distinctive cultures happen in a particular place Geographers are particularly interested in language, religion, and ethnicity Language Language is a system of sounds, gestures, and marks that have meanings understood within a cultural group This is how culture is transmitted from one generation to the next The words used in a language tell us something about where the culture is located Religion Religion Important because it is the principal system of attitudes, beliefs, and practices through which people worship in a formal, organized way Ethnicity Encompasses a group’s language, religion, and other cultural values, as well as is physical traits • Produced out of common traditions and heredity • Areas that more than one ethnic group call home are often characterized by conflict and inequality Ethnicity What People Take Care Of Production of material wealth is also of interest to geographers Geographers divide the Earth into classifications based on how economically developed an area is MDCs and LDCs (more developed and less developed countries North America, Europe, and Japan are MDCs Latin America, the Middle East, Southeast Asia are examples of LDCs Cultural Ecology: Integrating Culture and Environment Environmental factors are also considered when constructing regions Cultural ecology- geographic study of human-environment relationships continued Environmental determinism- the study of how the physical environment causes social development/human activities Idea pioneered by German geog. Humboldt and Ritter in 19th century Human and Physical Factors Modern geographers reject environmental determinism in favor of possibilism The theory that the physical environment may set limits on human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to the physical environment and choose a course of action from many possibilities Ex. People choose to grow wheat in colder, dry climates because they have learned it is possible Physical Processes: Climate Climate- the long-term average weather condition at a particular location The modified Koppen system divides the world into 5 main climate regions identified by the letters A - E continued A. B. C. D. E. Tropical Climates Dry Climates Warm Mid-Latitude Climates Cold Mid-Latitude Climates Polar Climates Each region is divided into subtypes based on precipitation, except for B which is divided by temperature and precipitation continued Relatively few people live in either the B or E region The climate greatly influences the types of activities people do there, esp. food production Physical Processes: Vegetation There are 4 major plant communities (biomes) on Earth’s land surfaces Their location and extent are influenced by both climate and human activities The four main biomes are forest, savanna, grassland, and desert Forest Biome •Trees form a continuous canopy over the ground •Grasses and shrubs may grow beneath the canopy •Biome covers much of NA, Europe, and Asia as well as tropical areas of SA, Africa, and SE Asia Savanna Biome •A mixture of trees and grasses •Lack of continuous canopy allows grasses to grow •Covers large areas of Africa, South Asia, SA, and Australia Grassland Biome •Covered by grass rather than trees •Low precipitation=few trees •Ex. Great plains Desert Biome •Many desert areas have almost no vegetation, however there are dispersed patches of plants adapted to dry conditions •Enough to support a small # of animals Physical Processes: Soil The US Comprehensive Soil Classification System divides soil types into 10 orders according to the characteristics of the immediate surface soil layers and subsoil Orders are divided into suborders, great groups, etc., etc. More than 12,000 types in US alone continued Human geographers concerned with destruction of soil caused by erosion and loss of nutrients Physical Processes: Landforms Geomorpholgy- the study of Earth’s landforms • Helps explain the distribution of people and the choice of economic activities at different locations Topographic maps are used to study the slope and relief of localities continued Relief- the difference in elevation b/w any 2 points—measures the extent to which an area is flat or hilly Slope-the relief divided by the distance b/w 2 points Globalization of the Economy Globalization- a force or process that involves the entire world and results in making something worldwide in scope • Means the scale of the world is shrinking continued Globalization of the economy has been led by transnational corporations • a company that does many aspects of business in multiple countries, not just where they are headquartered continued Every place in the world is part of the global economy, but globalization has led to more specialization at the local level • Each place tries to use its local assets to their fullest potential– these places are then exploited by transnationals • As a result globalization has heightened economic differences among places Globalization of Culture Increasingly uniform cultural preferences produce uniform “global” landscapes of material artifacts and of cultural values Ex. McDonald’s is everywhere, and the restaurants are all very similar As more people learn about global culture and desire to obtain the artifacts of it, local cultural beliefs are threatened w/ extinction Space: Distribution of Features Historians ask when and why • Geographers ask where and why Historians cannot travel to the past to study history, but geographers can travel from place to place Distribution- the arrangement of a feature in space • 3 main properties—density, concentration, and pattern Density Density- the frequency with which something occurs in space Feature being measured could be anything Arithmetic density- the total number of objects in an area Commonly used to compare distribution of population of diff. countries • Total pop. Divided by its area Large pop. Doesn’t have to mean high density continued Physiological density- the # of people per unit of area suitable for agriculture If high, may mean a country will have a hard time producing enough food Agricultural density- the # of farmers per unit area of farmland If high, may mean a country has inefficient agriculture Concentration Concentration- the extent of a feature’s spread over space • If objects in an area are close, they are clustered • If they are far apart, they are dispersed Geographers use concentration to describe changes in distribution It is not the same as density MLB-density up since 1960, concentration has become more dispersed Pattern Pattern- the geometric arrangement of objects in space Some features are organized in a geometric pattern, others irregularly Many objects form a linear distribution, while others are commonly arranged in a square or rectangular pattern Ex. House on a street (linear) Ex. Streets on a grid in a planned city (square) Connections Between Places Space-time compression- the reduction in the time it takes for something to reach another place It doesn’t take long any more • Promotes rapid change—culture and economy of one place reach other places very rapidly • Leads to diffusion- exposure to and adoption of outside cultural influences Spatial Interaction Occurs when places are connected through a network– transportation or communication The farther away one group is from another, the less likely they are to interact – called distance decay The internet has made this less likely to occur Diffusion Def.- the process by which a characteristic spreads across space from one place to another over time Hearth- the place from which an innovation originates 2 types of diffusion—relocation and expansion Relocation Diffusion Def.- the spread of an idea through physical movement of people from one place to another • Helps us understand the distribution of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) within the US Expansion Diffusion Def. – the spread of a feature from one place to another in a snowballing process Results from one of 3 processes 1. Hierarchical Diffusion 2. Contagious Diffusion 3. Stimulus Diffusion Hierarchical Diffusion Def- the spread of an idea from persons or nodes of authority or power to other persons or places Political leaders, social elite, or other important leaders Contagious Diffusion Def- the rapid, widespread diffusion of a characteristic throughout the population -much like the spread of a flu bug No regard for hierarchy and doesn’t require relcoation of people Stimulus Diffusion Def- the spread of an underlying principle, even though a characteristic itself apparently fails to diffuse Ex. IBM (DOS) vs. MAC (icons) in the early 1980s Diffusion of Culture and Economy In global culture and economy, transportataion and communications networks have been organized to rapidly diffuse raw materials, goods and services, and capital from nodes or origin to other regions continued Global culture and economy are increasingly centered on three hearth regions, NA, Western Europe, and Japan Control a large % of advanced technology, investment capital, and wealth to purchase goods and services New York, London, and Tokyo are the World’s leading cities continued Africa, Asia, and Latin America contain ¾ of the World’s pop., but they are on the periphery of development Uneven development- increasing gap in economic conditions b/w the core and periphery that results form the globalization of the economy