Download The Nursing Process and Drug Therapy

Core Concepts in
Pharmacology and
Medication
Administration
NRS 110
.
Introduction to
Pharmacology
:Classification of
Therapeutic Agents
• Drugs or Medicines
• Biologics
• Alternative Therapies
• Prescription vs Overthe-Counter (OTC)
Drugs
Drug Regulations
and Standards
• Formulary
• Pharmacopoeia
• U.S. PharmacopoeiaNational Formulary
(USP-NF)
• Pure Food and Drug Act
1906
• Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act 1938
• Dietary Supplement
Health and education Act
(1994)
• Food and Drug
Administration (1988)
Stages for Drug
Approval
Preclinical Investigation
Clinical Investigation
NDA Review
Postmarketing
Surveillance Studies
• Canadian Drug
Standards
•
•
•
•
Pharmacologic
Concepts
Drug Names
Chemical name
• Describes the drug’s chemical
composition and molecular
structure
Generic name (nonproprietary
name)
• Name given by the United
States Adopted
Name Council
Trade name (proprietary name)
• The drug has a registered
trademark; use of the name
restricted by the drug’s patent
owner
(usually the manufacturer)
Drug Names
(cont'd)
Chemical name
• (+/-)-2-(p-isobutylphenyl)
propionic acid
Generic name
• ibuprofen
Trade name
• Motrin®, Advil®
Pharmacological
Concepts:
Classification
• ClassificationFunctional/Therapeutic
Class vs
Chemical/Pharmacologic
Class
• Medication classification
indicates the effect of the
med on the body system,
the symptom the med
relieves, or the med’s
desired effect (e.g. oral
hypoglycemics)
Pharmacological
Concepts:
Classification
• A medication may also
be part of more than
one class
• Aspirin is an analgesic,
antipyretic, antiinflammatory, and antiplatelet
Brand-Name vs
Generic Drugs
• Bioavailability
• Bioequivalent
• Negative Formulary
List
Controlled
Substances
• High potential for
addiction or abuse
• Placed into 5 categories
or schedules (I-V)
• Controlled Substance
Act of 1970
• Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA)
• Medications are available
Pharmacological
in a variety of forms and
Concepts:
preparations
Medication
• The form of the med will
Forms
determine its route of
administration
• Composition of med is
designed to enhance its
absorption & metabolism
• Many meds are available in
several forms
Medication Forms
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tablet
Capsule
Elixir
Sustained Release
Enteric-coated
Suppository
Suspension
Transdermal patch
Pharmacokinetics
• The study of what the
body does to the drug
– Absorption
– Distribution
– Metabolism
– Excretion
Pharmacodynamics
• The study of what the
drug does to the body
– The mechanism of drug
actions in living tissues
Figure 2-2 Phases of Drug Activity. (From
McKenry LM, Salerno E: Mosby’s
pharmacology in nursing—revised and
updated, ed 21, St. Louis, 2003, Mosby.)
Pharmacotherapeutics
The use of drugs and the
clinical indications for
drugs to prevent and
treat diseases
Pharmacokinetics: Absorption
• The rate at which a
drug leaves its site of
administration, and the
extent to which
absorption occurs
Factors That
Affect Absorption
• Administration route of the
drug
• Ability of Med to Dissolve
• Food or other drugs
administered with the drug
• Body Surface Area
• pH of the absorptive
surface
• Rate of blood flow to the
small intestine
• Lipid Solubility of Med
Routes of
Administration
• A drug’s route of
administration affects
the rate and extent of
absorption of that drug
– Enteral (GI tract)
– Parenteral
– Topical
Enteral Route
• Drug is absorbed into
the systemic circulation
through the oral or
gastric mucosa, the
small intestine, or
rectum
– Oral
– Sublingual
– Buccal
– Rectal
First-Pass Effect
• The metabolism of a drug and
its passage from the liver into
the circulation
– A drug given via the oral route
may be extensively metabolized
by the liver before reaching the
systemic circulation (high firstpass effect)
– The same drug—given IV—
bypasses the liver, preventing
the first-pass effect from taking
place, and more drug reaches
the circulation
Box 2-1 Drug Routes and First-Pass Effects
Parenteral Route
• Intravenous (fastest
delivery into the blood
circulation)
• Intramuscular
• Subcutaneous
• Intradermal
• Intrathecal
• Intraarticular
Topical Route
• Skin (including
transdermal patches)
• Eyes
• Ears
• Nose
• Lungs (inhalation)
• Vagina
Distribution
The transport of a drug in
the body by the
bloodstream to its site of
action
• Protein-binding
• Water soluble vs. fat soluble
• Blood-brain barrier
• Areas of rapid distribution:
heart, liver, kidney, brain
• Areas of slow distribution:
muscle, skin, fat
Metabolism
(Also Known As Biotransformation)
The biologic transformation
of a drug into
an inactive metabolite, a
more soluble compound, or a
more potent metabolite
•
•
•
•
•
Liver (main organ)
Kidneys
Lungs
Plasma
Intestinal mucosa
Metabolism/Biotransformation
(cont'd)
Delayed drug metabolism
results in:
• Accumulation of drugs
• Prolonged action of the
drugs
Stimulating drug
metabolism causes:
• Diminished pharmacologic
effects
Excretion
The elimination of drugs
from the body
• Kidneys (main organ)
• Liver
• Bowel
– Biliary excretion
– Enterohepatic circulation
•
•
•
•
•
1. You are caring for a patient who has diabetes complicated
by kidney disease. You will need to make a detailed assessment
when administering medications because this patient may
experience problems with:
A. Absorption
B. Biotransformation
C. Distribution
D. Excretion
35 - 41
• Study of the
Pharmacodynamics
mechanism of drug
actions in living tissue
• Drug-induced
alterations to normal
physiologic function
• Positive changeTherapeutic effect-Goal
of therapy
Mechanism of
Action
• Ways in which a drug
can produce a
therapeutic effect
• The effects that a
particular drug has
depends on the cells or
organ targeted by the
drug
• Once the drug hits its
“site of action” it can
modify the rate at
which a cell or tissue
functions
Mechanism of
Action
• Receptor Interaction
• Enzyme Interaction
• Non-Specific
Interaction
Receptor Interaction
• Drug structure is essential
• Involves the selective
joining of drug molecule
with a reactive site on the
cell surface that elicits a
biological effect
• Receptor is the reactive site
on a cell or tissue
• Once the substance binds
to and interacts with the
receptor, a pharmacologic
response is produced
Receptor
Interaction
• Affinity- degree to which a
drug binds with a receptor
• The drug with the best “fit”
or affinity will elicit the
best response
• Drug can mimic body’s
endogenous substances
that normally bind to
receptor site
• Drugs that bind to
receptors interact with
receptors in different ways
to either block or elicit a
response
Receptor
Interaction
• Agonist-Drug binds to
receptor-there is a
response (Adrenergic
Agents)
• Antagonist-drug binds
to receptor-no
response-prevents
binding of agonists
(Alpha & Beta Blockers)
• Enzymes are substances
Enzyme Interaction
that catalyze nearly every
biochemical reaction in a
cell
• Drugs can interact with
enzyme systems to alter a
response
• Inhibits action of enzymesenzyme is “fooled” into
binding to drug instead of
target cell
• Protects target cell from
enzyme’s action (ACE
Inhibitors)
Non-Specific
Interaction
• Not involving a receptor
site or alteration in enzyme
function
• Main site of action is cell
membrane or cellular
process
• Drugs will physically
interfere or chemically alter
cell process
• Final product is altered
causing defect or cell death
• Cancer drugs, Antibiotics
The nurse is giving a medication that has a
high first-pass effect. The physician has
changed the route from IV to PO. The nurse
expects the oral dose to be:
1. Higher because of the first-pass effect.
2. Lower because of the first-pass effect.
3. The same as the IV dose.
4. Unchanged.
.
A patient is complaining of severe pain
and has orders for morphine sulfate. The
nurse knows that the route that would
give the slowest pain relief would be
which route?
1. IV
2. IM
3. SC
4. PO
Type of
Medication Action
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Therapeutic Effect
Side Effects
Adverse Effects
Toxic Effect
Idiosyncratic Reactions
Allergic Reaction
Medication Interactions
Iatrogenic Response
Therapeutic Effect
• The expected or
predictable
physiological response
a medication causes
• A single med can have
several therapeutic
effects (Aspirin)
• It is important for the
nurse to know why
med is being prescribed
Side Effects
• Unintended secondary
effects a medication
predictably will cause
• May be harmless or serious
• If side effects are serious
enough to negate the
beneficial effect of meds
therapeutic action, it may
be D/C’d
• People may stop taking
medications because of the
side effects
Adverse Effects
• Undesirable response of a
medication
• Unexpected effects of drug
not related to therapeutic
effect
• Must be reported to FDA
• Can be a side effect or a
harmful effect
• Can be categorized as
pharmacologic,
idiosyncratic,
hypersensitivity, or drug
interaction
Adverse Effects
• Adverse Drug Events
• Adverse Drug
Reactions (ADR)
Toxic Effect
• May develop after
prolonged intake or when
a med accumulates in the
blood because of impaired
metabolism or excretion, or
excessive amount taken
• Toxic levels of opioids can
cause resp.depression
• Antidotes available to
reverse effects
Idiosyncratic
Reactions
• Unpredictable effectsoverreacts or under reacts
to a medication or has a
reaction different from
normal
• Genetically determined
abnormal response
• Idiosyncratic drug
reactions are usually
caused by abnormal levels
of drug-metabolizing
enzymes (deficiency or
overabundance)
Allergic Reaction
• Unpredictable response to
a medication
• Makes up greater than 10%
of all medication reactions
• Client may become
sensitized immunologically
to the initial dose, repeated
administration causes an
allergic response to the
med, chemical preservative
or a metabolite
Allergic Reaction
• Medication acts as an
antigen triggering the
release of the body’s
antibodies
• May be mild or severe
• Among the different
classes of meds, antibiotics
cause the highest incidence
of allergic reaction
• Severe reactionAnaphylactic reaction
• Mild reaction-hives, rash,
pruritis
• 2. A postoperative client is receiving morphine sulfate via a
PCA. The nurse assesses that the client’s respirations are
depressed. The effects of the morphine sulfate can be classified
as:
• A. Allergic
• B. Idiosyncratic
• C. Therapeutic
• D. Toxic
35 - 66
Other Drug
Reactions
• Teratogenic-Structural
effect in unborn fetus
(thalidomide)
• Carcinogenic-Causes
cancer
• Mutagenic- Changes
genetic composition
(radiation, chemicals)
Drug
Interactions
• Occurs when one med
modifies the action of
another
• Common in people
taking several
medications at once
• One med may
potentiate or diminish
the action of another or
alter the way it is
absorbed, metabolized
or eliminated
• Warfarin and
Amiodarone
Iatrogenic
Responses
• Unintentional adverse
effects that occur during
therapy
• Treatment-Induced
Dermatologic-rash, hives,
acne
• Renal DamageAminoglycoside
antibiotics, NSAIDS,
contrast medium
• Blood DyscrasiasDestruction of blood cells
(Chemotherapy)
• Hepatic Toxicity-Elevated
liver enzymes (hepatitislike symptoms)
Synergistic
Effect
• Effect of 2 meds combined
is greater than the meds
given separately
• Alcohol & Antihistamines,
antidepressants,
barbiturates, narcotics
• Not always undesirable,
physician may combine
meds to create an
interaction that will have
beneficial effects
(Vasodilators & diuretics to
control high BP)
Medication Dose
Responses
• Except when administered
IV, meds take time to enter
bloodstream
• The quantity & distribution
of med in different body
compartments change
constantly
• Goal is to keep constant
blood level within a safe
therapeutic range
• Repeated doses are
required to achieve a
constant therapeutic
concentration of a med
because a portion of med is
always being excreted
Medication Dose
Responses
• Serum Half-Life:Time it
takes for excretion
processes to lower the
serum medication
concentration by ½
• Regular fixed doses must
be given to maintain
therapeutic concentration
• Dosage schedules set by
institutions (TID, q8h, HS,
AC, STAT, PRN)
• Peak & Trough levels
• Therapeutic drug
monitoring
Half-life
• The time it takes for one
half of the original amount
of a drug in the body to be
removed
• A measure of the rate at
which drugs are removed
from the body
Onset, Peak, and
Duration
Onset
• The time it takes for the drug
to elicit a
therapeutic response
Peak
• The time it takes for a drug
to reach its maximum
therapeutic response
Duration
• The time a drug
concentration is sufficient to
elicit a therapeutic response
Pharmacotherapeutics: Types of
Therapies
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Acute therapy
Maintenance therapy
Supplemental therapy
Palliative therapy
Supportive therapy
Prophylactic therapy
Empiric
Monitoring
• The effectiveness of the
drug therapy must be
evaluated
• One must be familiar
with the drug’s:
– Intended therapeutic
action (beneficial)
– Unintended but
potential side effects
(predictable, adverse
reactions)
Monitoring
(cont'd)
• Therapeutic index
– The ratio between a
drug’s therapeutic
benefits and its toxic
effects
Monitoring
(cont'd)
Interactions may occur
with other drugs or food
• Drug interactions: the
alteration of action of
a drug by:
– Other prescribed drugs
– Over-the-counter
medications
– Herbal therapies
Monitoring
(cont'd)
• Drug interactions
– Additive effect
– Synergistic effect
– Antagonistic effect
– Incompatibility
Monitoring
(cont'd)
• Medication
misadventures
– Adverse drug events
– Adverse drug reactions
– Medication errors
Monitoring
(cont'd)
Some adverse drug
reactions are classified
as side effects
• Expected, well-known
reactions that result in little
or no change in patient
management
• Predictable frequency
• The effect’s intensity and
occurrence are related to
the size of the dose
An adverse outcome of
drug therapy in which
a patient is harmed in
some way
Adverse Drug
Reaction
•
•
•
•
Pharmacologic reactions
Idiosyncratic reactions
Hypersensitivity reactions
Drug interactions
Other DrugRelated Effects
• Teratogenic
• Mutagenic
• Carcinogenic
Toxicology
The study of poisons
and unwanted
responses to
therapeutic agents
Table 2-9 Common
Poisons and Antidotes
The Nursing
Process
• Assessment
• Nursing diagnosis
• Planning (with outcome
criteria)
• Implementation
• Evaluation
The Nursing
Process (cont'd)
Assessment
• Data collection
– Subjective, objective
– Data collected on the patient,
drug, environment
•
•
•
•
Medication history
Nursing assessment
Physical assessment
Data analysis
The “Seven
Rights”
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Right drug
Right dose
Right time
Right route
Right patient
Right to refuse
Right documentation
Another “Right”—Constant
System Analysis
• A “double-check”
• The entire “system” of
medication
administration
• Ordering, dispensing,
preparing, administering,
documenting
• Involves the physician,
nurse, nursing unit,
pharmacy department,
and patient education
Other “Rights”
• Proper drug storage
• Proper documentation
• Accurate dosage
calculation
• Accurate dosage
preparation
• Careful checking of
transcription of orders
• Patient safety
Other “Rights”
(cont'd)
• Close consideration of
special situations
• Prevention and
reporting of medication
errors
• Patient teaching
• Monitoring for
therapeutic effects, side
effects, toxic effects
• Refusal of medication
Evaluation
• Ongoing part of the
nursing process
• Determining the status
of the goals and
outcomes of care
• Monitoring the
patient’s response to
drug therapy
– Expected and
unexpected responses
The day shift charge nurse is making rounds. A
patient tells the nurse that the night shift nurse
never gave him his medication, which was due at
11 PM. What should the nurse do first to
determine whether the medication was given?
1. Call the night nurse at home.
2. Check the Medication Administration Record.
3. Call the pharmacy.
4. Review the nurse’s notes.
The patient’s Medication Administration Record
lists two antiepileptic medications that are due at
0900, but the patient is NPO for a barium study.
The nurse’s coworker suggests giving the
medications via IV because the patient is NPO.
What should the nurse do?
1. Give the medications PO with a small sip of water.
2. Give the medications via the IV route because the
patient is NPO.
3. Hold the medications until after the test is
completed.
4. Call the physician to clarify the instructions.
Psychosocial,
Gender and Cultural
Influences on
Pharmacotherapy
• Psychosocial Influences
• Cultural and Ethnic
Influences
• Gender Influences
Life Span
Considerations
Life Span
Considerations
•
•
•
•
•
Pregnancy
Breast-feeding
Neonatal
Pediatric
Geriatric
Pregnancy
• First trimester is the
period of greatest
danger for druginduced developmental
defects
• Drugs diffuse across the
placenta
• FDA pregnancy safety
categories
Breast-feeding
• Breast-fed infants are at
risk for exposure to
drugs consumed by the
mother
• Consider risk-to-benefit
ratio
Pediatric Considerations:
Pharmacokinetics
• Absorption
– Gastric pH less acidic
– Gastric emptying is
slowed
– Topical absorption faster
through the skin
– Intramuscular
absorption faster and
irregular
Pediatric Considerations:
Pharmacokinetics (cont'd)
• Distribution
– TBW 70% to 80% in fullterm infants, 85% in
premature newborns, 64%
in children 1 to 12 years
of age
– Greater TBW means fat
content is lower
– Decreased level of protein
binding
– Immature blood-brain
barrier
Pediatric Considerations:
Pharmacokinetics (cont'd)
• Metabolism
– Liver immature, does
not produce enough
microsomal enzymes
– Older children may have
increased metabolism,
requiring higher doses
– Other factors
Pediatric Considerations:
Pharmacokinetics (cont'd)
• Excretion
– Kidney immaturity
affects glomerular
filtration rate and
tubular secretion
– Decreased perfusion rate
of the kidneys
Summary of Pediatric
Considerations
• Skin is thin and permeable
• Stomach lacks acid to kill
bacteria
• Lungs lack mucus barriers
• Body temperatures poorly
regulated and dehydration
occurs easily
• Liver and kidneys are
immature, impairing drug
metabolism and excretion
Methods of Dosage Calculation
for Pediatric Patients
• Body weight dosage
calculations
• Body surface area
method
Geriatric
Considerations
• Geriatric: older than
age 65
– Healthy People 2010:
older than age 55
• Use of OTC
medications
• Polypharmacy
Table 3-4 Physiologic changes in the geriatric
patient
Geriatric Considerations:
Pharmacokinetics
• Absorption
– Gastric pH less acidic
– Slowed gastric emptying
– Movement through GI
tract slower
– Reduced blood flow to the
GI tract
– Reduced absorptive
surface area due to
flattened intestinal villi
Geriatric Considerations:
Pharmacokinetics (cont'd)
• Distribution
– TBW percentages lower
– Fat content increased
– Decreased production of
proteins by the liver,
resulting in decreased
protein binding of drugs
Geriatric Considerations:
Pharmacokinetics (cont'd)
• Metabolism
– Aging liver produces
less microsomal
enzymes, affecting drug
metabolism
– Reduced blood flow to
the liver
Geriatric Considerations:
Pharmacokinetics (cont'd)
• Excretion
– Decreased glomerular
filtration rate
– Decreased number of
intact nephrons
Geriatric Considerations: Problematic
Medications
• Analgesics
• Anticoagulants
• Anticholinergics
• Antihypertensives
• Digoxin
• Sedatives and
hypnotics
• Thiazide diuretics
Medication
Errors:
Preventing
and
Responding
Medication
Misadventures
• Medication errors
(MEs)
• Adverse drug events
(ADEs)
• Adverse drug reactions
(ADRs)
Medication
Misadventures (cont'd)
• By definition, all ADRs
are also ADEs
• But all ADEs are not
ADRs
• Two types of ADRs
– Allergic reactions
– Idiosyncratic reactions
Medication Errors
• Preventable
• Common cause of
adverse health care
outcomes
• Effects can range from no
significant effect to
directly causing disability
or death
Box 5-1 Common classes of medications
involved in serious errors
• http://www.usp.org/p
df/EN/patientSafety/i
smpAbbreviations.pdf
Preventing
Medication Errors
• Minimize verbal or
telephone orders
– Repeat order to prescriber
– Spell drug name aloud
– Speak slowly and clearly
• List indication next to
each order
• Avoid medical shorthand,
including abbreviations
and acronyms
Preventing
Medication Errors
(cont'd)
• Never assume anything
about items not specified in
a drug order (i.e., route)
• Do not hesitate to question
a medication order for any
reason when in doubt
• Do not try to decipher
illegibly written orders;
contact prescriber for
clarification
Preventing Medication
Errors (cont'd)
• NEVER use “trailing
zeros” with medication
orders
• Do not use 1.0 mg; use
1 mg
• 1.0 mg could be
misread as 10 mg,
resulting in a tenfold
dose increase
Preventing
Medication Errors
(cont'd)
• ALWAYS use a
“leading zero” for
decimal dosages
• Do not use .25 mg; use
0.25 mg
• .25 mg may be misread
as 25 mg
• “.25” is sometimes
called a “naked
decimal”
Preventing Medication
Errors (cont'd)
• Check medication order
and what is available
while using the “7 rights”
• Take time to learn special
administration
techniques of certain
dosage forms
Preventing
Medication Errors
(cont'd)
• Always listen to and
honor any concerns
expressed by patients
regarding medications
• Check patient allergies
and identification
• Medication
Reconciliation
Medication Errors
• Possible consequences to
nurses
• Reporting and responding to
MEs
– ADE monitoring programs
– USPMERP (United States
Pharmacopeia Medication
Errors Reporting Program)
– MedWatch, sponsored by the
FDA
– Institute for Safe Medication
Practices (ISMP)
• Notification of patient
regarding MEs
• 3. Nurses are legally required to document medications that
are administered to clients. The nurse is mandated to document:
• A. Medication before administering it
• B. Medication after administering it
• C. Rationale for administering the medication
• D. Prescriber’s rationale for prescribing the medication
35 - 129
• 4. If a nurse experiences a problem reading a physician’s
medication order, the most appropriate action will be to:
• A. Call the physician to verify the order.
• B. Call the pharmacist to verify the order.
• C. Consult with other nursing staff to verify the order.
• D. Withhold the medication until the physician makes
rounds.
35 - 130
Medication
Administration
Preparing for Drug
Administration
• Check the “7 rights”
• Standard Precautions:
Wash your hands!
• Double-check if unsure
about anything
• Check for drug allergies
• Prepare drugs for one
patient at a time
• Check three times
Preparing for Drug
Administration
(cont'd)
• Check expiration dates
• Check the patient’s
identification (2 identifiers)
• Give medications on time
• Explain medications to the
patient
• Open the medications at
the bedside
• Document the medications
given before going to the
next patient
Drug Routes &
First Pass Effects
• First Pass Routes- Oral,
Rectal
• Non-First Pass RoutesAural, Buccal, Inhaled,
Intraarterial,
Intramuscular,
Intranasal, Intraocular,
Vaginal, Intravenous,
Subcutaneous,
Sublingual,
Transdermal
Oral Route
• Easiest, most
commonly used
• Slower onset of action
• More prolonged effect
• Preferred by clients
• Sublingual
Administration
• Buccal Administration
Enteral
Drugs
• Giving oral medications
• Giving sublingual or buccal
medications
• Liquid medications
• Giving oral medications to
infants
• Administering drugs
through a nasogastric or
gastrostomy tube
• Rectal administration
Parenteral Route
Injecting a medication
into body tissues
• Subcutaneous (SQ)
• Intramuscular (IM)
• Intravenous (IV)
• Intradermal (ID)
• Advanced techniques
Parenteral
Drugs
• Never recap a used
needle!
• May recap an unused
needle with the “scoop
method”
• Prevention of
needlesticks
• Filter needles
Parenteral
Drugs
(cont'd)
• Removing medications
from ampules
• Removing medications
from vials
• Disposal of used
needles and syringes
• Needle Selection
Injections
• Needle angles for
various injections
– Intramuscular (IM)
– Subcutaneous (SC or SQ)
– Intradermal (ID)
• Z-track method for IM
injections
• Air-lock technique
Injection
Techniques
• Intradermal injections
• Subcutaneous injections
– Insulin administration
– Anticoagulant
administration
(Heparin/Lovenox)
Injection
Techniques
(cont'd)
• Intramuscular
injections
– Ventrogluteal site
(preferred)
– Vastus lateralis site
– Dorsogluteal site
– Deltoid site
Preparing
Intravenous
Medications
Needleless systems
Compatibility issues
Expiration dates
Mixing intravenous
piggyback (IVPB)
medications
• Labeling intravenous (IV)
infusion bags when
adding medications
•
•
•
•
Intravenous
Medications
• Adding medications to a
primary infusion bag
• IVPB medications
(secondary line)
• IV push medications
(bolus)
– Through an IV lock
– Through an existing IV
infusion
Intravenous
Medications
(cont'd)
• Volume-controlled
administration set
• Using electronic
infusion pumps
• Patient-controlled
analgesia (PCA) pumps
Topical
Drugs
• Eye medications
– Drops
– Ointments
• Ear drops
– Adults
– Infant or child younger
than 3 years of age
Topical
Drugs
(cont'd)
• Nasal drugs
– Drops
– Spray
• Inhaled drugs
– Metered-dose inhalers
– Small-volume nebulizers
Topical
Drugs
(cont'd)
• Administering
medications to the skin
– Lotions, creams,
ointments, powders
– Transdermal patches
• Vaginal medications
– Creams, foams, gels
– Suppositories
Pediatric Drug
Administration
• Infancy
• Toddlers
• Preschool and SchoolAge Children
• Adolescents