Download THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

Anatomy &
Physiology
What is Anatomy & Physiology?
• Anatomy
–Is the study of structure
What is Anatomy & Physiology?
• Anatomy
–Subdivisions of anatomy
• Gross anatomy
• Microanatomy
• Cellular
• Histology
• Systemic anatomy
• Regional anatomy
What is Anatomy & Physiology?
• Physiology
–Is the study of function
–Structure determines
function
–Function usually determines
location
Anatomical Position
Anatomical Terminology
• Directional Terms
Superior aka cranial: above
Inferior aka caudal: below
Proximal: towards the
attachment
of a limb
Distal: toward the
fingers or toes
Anatomical Terminology
• Directional Terms
Anterior: toward/from
the front
Posteror: toward/from
the back
Peripheral: toward the
outer wall or surface
Anatomical Terminology
• Directional Terms
Inversion: turning inward
Eversion: turning outward
Abduction: moving
away from the midline
Adduction: moving
toward the midline
Anatomical Terminology
• Directional Terms
Supination: turning a body
part upward
Pronation: turning a body
part downward
Caudal: toward the tailbone
Cranial: toward the head
Anatomical Terminology
• Directional Terms
Afferent: carrying toward
the center
Efferent: carrying away
from the center
Parietal: outer wall of body
cavity
Visceral: inner cover of structure or
belly side
Anatomical Terminology
• Directional Terms
Superficial: toward the surface
Deep: Away from the surface
Anatomical Planes
• Sagittal Plane
divides the
body into a
right and a
left half
• mid sagittal
• parasagittal
Anatomical Planes
• Frontal or
Coronal
divides the
body into a
front and a
back
Anatomical Planes
• Transverse
or
horizontal
divides the
body into
upper and
lower
portions
Anatomical Terminology
• Planes
Paramedian
Median or
mid-sagittal
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Classify each plane illustrated
below:
mid-sagittal
frontal
horizontal
Hierarchy of Organization
• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Organ Systems
Organ System Overview
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Integumentary System
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Nervous System
Endocrine System
Cardiovascular System
Lymphatic System
Respiratory System
Digestive System
Urinary System
Reproductive System
Life Processes
•
•
•
•
•
•
metabolism
responsiveness
movement
growth
Differentiation
Reproduction
Homeostasis
• Maintenance of a stable internal
environment = a dynamic state of
equilibrium
• Homeostasis must be maintained
for normal body functioning and to
sustain life
• Homeostatic imbalance – a
disturbance in homeostasis
resulting in disease
Maintaining Homeostasis
• The body communicates through
neural and hormonal control
systems
• Receptor
• Responds to changes in the
environment (stimuli)
• Sends information to control
center
Maintaining Homeostasis
• Control center
• Determines set point
• Analyzes information
• Determines appropriate response
• Effector
• Provides a means for response to the
stimulus
Organ Systems
Integumentary
System
Function:
Protection, synthesizes
vitamin D, forms
external body covering
Organs/Components:
Epidermis and Dermis
Finger/toe nails
Hair
Sweat glands
Organ Systems
Skeletal System
Function:
provide support for the
body, to protect delicate
internal organs and to
provide attachment sites
for the organs, site for
RBC formation, stores
minerals.
Organs/Components:
Bones, cartilage, joints
Organ Systems
Muscular System
Function:
provide support, heat, and
movement. Maintains
posture.
Organs/Components:
skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle,
tendons
Organ Systems
Circulatory System
Function:
transport nutrients,
gases (such as oxygen
and CO2), hormones and
wastes through the body.
Organs:
Heart, blood vessels and
blood
Organ Systems
Lymphatic System
Function:
returns fluids to blood
vessels, disposes of debris,
involved in immunity
Organs:
lymph nodes, lymph
vessels,
Organ Systems
Nervous System
Function: activates muscles &
glands, responds to internal &
external stimuli, directs
behavior and movement
along with the endocrine
system, controls
physiological processes,
Organs:
Brain, spinal cord and
peripheral nerves.
Respiratory
System
Function:
provide gas
exchange between
the blood and the
environment
for the organs.
Organs:
Nose, trachea and
lungs. bronchi
Digestive
System
Function:
breakdown and
absorb nutrients
that are necessary
for growth and
maintenance
Organs:
Mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small and
large intestines
Excretory/Urinary
System
Function:
filter out cellular wastes ie.
nitrogen & ammonia, toxins
and excess water from the
circulatory system, maintains
acid-base balance, regulation
of materials ie. electrolytes
Organs:
Kidneys, ureters,
bladder and urethra
Endocrine
System
Function:
relay chemical messages through
the body and in conjunction with
the nervous system, these
chemical messages help control
physiological processes ie.
Growth metabolism, reproduction
Organs:
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid,
ovaries/testies, and adrenal
glands
Reproductive
System
Function:
manufacture cells that allow
reproduction of offspring
Organs:
ovaries, oviducts, uterus,
vagina and mammary
glands
testes, seminal vesicles and
penis
Positions
• Many medical procedures and therapies require that
a patient assume a certain position.
• Position terms include:
– Sitting (most common position) used for auscultation of
the heart and lungs; for taking blood pressure, and for
portions of a neurological examination.
– Fowler’s & Modified Fowler’s: is used for exam of the
heart and lungs, to promote respiration in patients who
have shortness of breath, and for exam of the feet and
lower legs.
Positions Continued:
– Supine (on your back) The supine position is used for
exams of the anterior body surfaces, breast exams, xrays, and some surgical procedures
– Prone (on your stomach) This position is used for
examination of the posterior of the body surfaces and for
some operations.
– Trendelenburg’s: May be used to prevent and treat
shock, for radiologic exams and procedures, and for
some types of surgery.
– Modified Trendelenburg’s: Used to prevent and treat
shock in trauma patients, for radiologic exams, or during
some operations.
Positions Continued:
– Knee to Chest: Used for rectal exams, artificial
insemination, and some surgical procedures. In some
cases, the exam table may be contoured to aid positioning
and to support the patient.
– Sims: AKA the Left Lateral Position, it may be used
for administering rectal suppositories and enemas and for
certain exams and surgical procedures
– Dorsal Recumbent: used for exam of the abdomen,
occasionally for vaginal or rectal exams, and for some
surgical procedures.
– Lithotomy: used for pelvic exams in females, rectal
exams, some operations, and sometimes in childbirth.
Fowler’s & Modified Fowler’s
Knee to Chest & Sims
Anatomical Terminology
Directional Terms
Cranial: towards the
head
Caudal: towards the
feet/buttocks
Medial: towards the
middle
Lateral: towards or from
the side
Anatomical Terminology
Directional Terms
Palmar: toward or on
the palm of the hand
Plantar: toward or on
the soles of the feet
Anatomical Terminology
Regional Terms
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Abdominal
Antecubital
Axillary
Brachial
Buccal
Carpal
Cervical
Anatomical Terminology
Regional Terms
h. Digital
i. Femoral
j. Inguinal
k. Nasal
l. Oral
m. Orbital
n. Patellar
Anatomical Terminology
Regional Terms
o.
p.
q.
r.
Pubic
Tarsal
Thoracic
Umbilical
Anatomical Terminology
Regional Terms
s.
t.
u.
v.
Cephalic
Dorsum
Gluteus
Lumbar
Anatomical Terminology
Regional Terms
w. Popiteal
x. Sural
y. Calcaneus
ABDOMINOPELVIC
QUADRANTS
Right Upper
Quadrant
(RUQ)
Left Upper
Quadrant
(LUQ)
Right Lower
Quadrant
(RLQ)
Left Lower
Quadrant
(LLQ)
Anatomical
Terminology
Abdominopelvic
Regions
Abdominopelvic
Quadrants
Body
Cavities
Cranial
Cavity
Dorsal
Spinal
Thoracic
Pericardial
Abdominal
Pelvic
Abdominopelvic
Ventral
Abdominopelvic
Major Organs
HOMEOSTASIS
• Is maintaining the internal
environment within physiological
limits
–Internal environment refers to
the extracellular fluids (EFC)
–Includes lymph, plasma and
interstitial fluid
• The maintenance of homeostasis
results in health
HOMEOSTASIS
• And Stress
–Homeostatic mechanisms attempt
to counteract the effects of the
stress and bring the condition
back to normal
HOMEOSTASIS
• Homeostasis is regulated by the
nervous system and endocrine
systems
HOMEOSTASIS
• And Feedback Systems (Loops)
– a cycle of events in which
information about the status of a
condition is continually monitored
and fed back (reported) to a central
control region.
– Any stress that changes a
controlled condition is called a
stimulus.
HOMEOSTASIS
• And Feedback Systems (Loops)
–three basic components
• The control center
• The receptor
• The effector
HOMEOSTASIS
• And Feedback Systems (Loops)
– Negative Feedback Systems
a. Shuts off, reduces or reverses the
original stimuls
b. Tend to maintain conditions
that require frequent fine tuning
– Positive Feedback Systems
a. enhances the original stimulus
b. this only occurs in blood clotting
& birth of a baby.
HOMEOSTASIS
•And Disease
– Disease
a. any change from a
state of health,
characterized by
symptoms & signs
b. Local vs. systemic
disease
• Homeostasis And Disease
– Symptoms vs. Symptoms
a. Symptoms
are subjective changes in
body functions that are not
apparent to an observer
b. Signs
are objective
changes that a
clinician can
observe and
measure
What is Anatomy & Physiology?
• Anatomy
– Is the study of structure
– Subdivisions of anatomy
• surface anatomy
• gross anatomy
• systemic anatomy
• regional anatomy
• radiographic anatomy
• developmental anatomy
• embryology
• cytology
• pathological anatomy
THE CHEMISTRY OF
LIFE
CH 2
I. Atoms and molecules
A. Atoms are the smallest stable
units of matter.
1. Nucleus
• Protons
• Neutrons
2. Electron cloud
• Electrons
3. Atoms are electrically
neutral
# protons = # electrons
I. Atoms and molecules
B. Elements
Element= A substance that is made
of only one kind of atom
1. Contain atoms with the same
number of protons
• Called “atomic number”
• Differ in number of electrons
and neutrons
2. 92 naturally occurring
3. Principle elements of human body
O, C, H, N, Ca, P
II. Chemical bonding
A. Ionic bonds
1.Form when one atom
gives up an e- and
another atom gains that
e• cations
• anions
2. Properties of Ionic Compounds
• readily dissolve in water
• dissociate in water into their
cations and anions.
II. Chemical bonding
B. Covalent bonds
1.Form when two atoms share
electrons, forming a molecule
•Form a molecule
•Diatomic mc: H2, 02, N2
2. Kinds of covalent bonds
•Nonpolar Covalent bonds
•Polar Covalent bonds
3. Properties of Covalent Cmpds
strong bonds
II. Chemical bonding
C. Hydrogen bonds
1. Form between two adjacent
polar mc containing H and O, N,
or F
• Ex: between water mc
2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds
• Very weak
• Important in determining the
shape of large biological mc such
as protein and DNA
• Important in determining
characteristics of water
II. Chemical bonding
D. States of Matter
1. Are determined by the amount of
bonding that occurs between mc
• Solid Liquid Gas
2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds
• Water is the only substance that can
occur in all three states within
temperature ranges consistent with life
Solid
Liquid
Gas
III. Chemical reactions
A. Fundamental Concepts
1. Metabolism
2. Reactants
2. Products
3. Chemical reaction
4. Energy
• Potential Energy
• Kinetic Energy
• Law of Conservation of Matter and
Energy
III. Chemical reactions
B. Types of reactions
1. Decomposition
•
•
•
•
AB  A + B
Catabolic processes
Exergonic
Hydrolysis
III. Chemical reactions
B. Types of reactions
2. Synthesis
•
•
•
•
A + B  AB
Anabolic processes
Endergonic
Dehydration Synthesis
III. Chemical reactions
B. Types of reactions
3. Exchange
• AB + CD  AD + CB
• Decomposition and synthesis
may be paired.
III. Chemical reactions
C. Reversible reactions
1. Reactants become products
while products become
reactants
• A + B  AB
• Continues until equilibrium is reached
2. Very important to biological
systems
ATP  ADP + P
III. Chemical reactions
D. Enzymes and Chemical reactions
1. Enzymes are important
reaction catalysts in metabolic
systems
• Speed up the reaction
• Allow the reaction to occur at lower
than normal temperatures
• Lower the activation energy
2. Are not altered or used up by
the reaction
IV. Inorganic compounds
A. Generally Concepts
1. Don’t contain both C & H
2. Important organic cmpds in the
human body
•
•
•
•
CO2
O2
H2O
inorganic acids, bases, and salts
IV. Inorganic compounds
B. Water
1. Excellent solvent because it is polar.
Solute + solvent = solution
IV. Inorganic compounds
B. Water
2. Forms a reaction medium,
particularly in hydrolysis reactions
which break down larger molecules.
IV. Inorganic compounds
B. Water
3. High heat capacity and thus water
stays in a liquid form over a broad
range of temps.
4. Water is an important reactant in
some types of chemical reactions.
IV. Inorganic compounds
B. Water
4. Water carries heat with it when
it evaporates - thus water helps
stabilize body temperature.
5. Effective lubricant in joints and
within body cavities and thus
serves a protective function.
IV. Inorganic compounds
C. Aqueous solutions and electrolytes
1. Electrolytes
• Water soluble inorganic cmpds
• Are capable of conducting an electric
current
2. Electrolytes and the electrical activity
they can generate are the basis for
• nerve impulses
• muscle action
IV. Inorganic compounds
C. Aqueous solutions and electrolytes
3. Homeostasis of electrolytes in body
fluids
• kidneys (rid body of excess ions)
• digestive (absorb ions from diet)
• skeletal (store and release ions)
4. Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Mc
IV. Inorganic compounds
D. Colloids and suspensions
1. Colloids
– are solutions in which large and
complex organic mc are dispersed
– mc stay in solution indefinitely
– Example: proteins
2. Suspensions
– Contain large particles that will
settle out if left undisturbed
– Example: blood
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
1. Acids
–Are substances
which form H+ ions
when in solution
(the stronger the
acid the more H+
ions it contains)
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
1. Acids
- can break bonds,
denature proteins,
and disrupt cell
and tissue
functions
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
1. Acids
The lower the
• pH  7
pH the
• Examples:
stronger the
– Carbonic acid acid
– HCl
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
2. Bases
• Are substances which form
OH- ions when in solution
(the stronger the base
the more OH- ions it
contains)
• pH  7
(the stronger the base
the higher the pH)
Normal pH of blood is 7.35
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
2. Bases
– Strong bases are very
damaging to cell processes
– Example: NH4OH
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
3. Salts
• Contain a cation other
than H and an anion
other than OH
• dissociate in water
• Are strong electrolytes
• pH = 7
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
3. Salts
• Importance in the
body:
– provide ions for
transport of
substances into and
out of cells
– function in muscle
contraction
– function in nerve
impulse conduction
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
4. Changes in the acid-base
balance are resisted by
– extracellular and intracellular
chemical buffers
– respiratory regulation
– renal regulation
IV. Inorganic compounds
E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
5. Buffers
• compounds help stabilize the pH of
a solution by turning a strong acid
or base into a weaker one
• usually consist of a weak acid and
its related salt
• Example:
– bicarbonate ion buffers the blood
V. Organic compounds
A. General
1. Long-chain molecules
• Always contain C and H
• Usually contain O
2. Linked by covalent bonds
3. Many are soluble in water
4. Classes of Organic Cmpds
•
•
•
•
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
V. Organic compounds
A. Carbohydrates
1. Contain C H O
in a near 1:2:1 ratio
2. Most important function:
Primary
energy
source
for the
cell
V. Organic compounds
A. Carbohydrates
3. Kinds
• Monosaccharides
– Simple sugars
– 3-7 carbons in
length
– Example: Glucose
(C6H12O6)
• Disaccharides
–Double sugars
–Example:
Lactose, sucrose
• Polysaccharides
–Most complex
sugars
–Example: Starch
Glycogen
V. Organic compounds
B. Lipids
1. Contain C H O in
very large
numbers
2. Include
Fats, oils and
waxes
3. Common examples
– triglycerides
– steroids
– phospholipids
V. Organic compounds
B. Lipids
5. Insoluble in water
4. Importance
• long term energy
storage
• structural
component of cell
membranes
(phospholipids)
B. Lipids
5. Kinds
– Fatty Acids:
• saturated
 C have only
single bonds
• unsaturated
 C have 1 or
more double
bonds.
 polyunsaturated
double bonds
occur at multiple sites
V. Organic compounds
B. Lipids
5. Kinds
– Eicosanoids:
• Have short C chains
• Prostaglandins – local hormones
• Leukotrienes – coordinate
response to injury or disease
B. Lipids
5. Kinds
– Glycerides
• composed of
fatty acids
and glycerol
• Function
 Energy
source
 Insulation
 Protection
B. Lipids
5. Kinds
– Steroids
lg lipid mc
examples:
cholesterol,
testoterone,
estrogen
- Function
Stabilize cell membrane
Sex hormones
Regulate metabolism and mineral
balance
Formation of bile
B. Lipids
5. Kinds
– Phospholipd
structural
lipids that
help form
and maintain
cell
membranes
polar head - hydrophilic
nonpolar tail- hydrophobic
V. Organic compounds
C. Proteins
Examples:
Keratin, hemoglobin
1. Basics
– the most abundant organic
components in the body
– contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen.
– If made of more than 30 amino
acids it is called a polypeptide
C. Proteins
Made from amino acids (20
exist) held together by peptide
bonds
V. Organic compounds
C. Proteins
2. Functions
Support, movement,
transport, buffers,
regulate reactions, coordination,
control, defense
3. Structure
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary,
Quatranary
Primary
Structure:
Order of the
amino acid
sequence
Peptide
bonds
Secondary
Structure:
the tendency of
the polypeptide
to coil or pleat
due to H-bonding
between Rgroups
Tertiary Structure:
Describes the overall
shape of a protein;
Shape determines
function
Quaternary Structure:
Proteins formed from
one or more
polypeptides
V. Organic compounds
C. Proteins
4. Shape Determines function
Small changes in pH,
temperature, ionic composition
can denature a protein (affects
protein structure) & cause it not
to function properly
5. Enzymes
• Biological catalysts
• Speed up a reaction without
being used up in the reaction
V. Organic compounds
C. Proteins
5. Enzymes
• Biological catalysts
• Speed up a reaction without
being used up in the reaction
Lock and
Key Model
of Enzyme
Action
V. Organic compounds
C. Proteins
5. Enzymes
• lower the needed activation
energy
Induced
Fit Model
of
Enzyme
Action
V. Organic compounds
C. Proteins
5. Enzymes
• Some poisons bond
permanently to an enzyme
Model of
How
Some
Poisons
Work
V. Organic compounds
C. Proteins
6. Glycoproteins
• Protein + carbohydrate
• Important in cell recognition
V. Organic compounds
C. Proteins
6. Glycoproteins
•
Function
As enzymes
As antibodies
As hormones
As cell
membrane
components
To secrete mucins which absorb
water to form mucus
V. Organic compounds
D. Nucleic Acids
1. lg organic mc that have
C, H, O, N and P
2. Function
store and process information
3. Structure
made of nucleotides
 Phosphate, sugar, base
(adenine, guanine, cytosine,
thymine, uracil)
 linked by dehydration synthesis
V. Organic compounds
D. Nucleic Acids
3. Structure
• made of nucleotides
V. Organic compounds
D. Nucleic Acids
4. Kinds
• DNA
 Important in inheritance
 Codes for and directs the
synthesis of proteins
 Regulates cell metabolism
 Found in nucleus
 Double stranded
 Sugar is Deoxyribose
 Bases are A G C T
 Able to self replicate
DNA STRUCTURE
V. Organic compounds
D. Nucleic Acids
4. Kinds
• RNA
 comes in several forms
(mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) that
cooperate to manufacture
proteins
 Single stranded
 Found in nucleus and
cytoplasm
 Bases are U A G C
 Sugar is ribose
V. Organic compounds
E. High Energy Compounds
1. Energy currency cells is ATP
• ATP made of 3 phosphate groups
attached to an adenosine
(composed of adenine and ribose)
E. High Energy Compounds
2. Energy is stored when P is
added to ADP (energonic)
E. High Energy Compounds
2. Energy is released when P is
added to ADP (exergonic)
E. High Energy Compounds
3. Another form, called cyclic-AMP
is used as an intracellular signal.