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LEARNING There is a Chinese say ‘’If you wish to plan for a year sow seeds, if you wish to plan for ten years plant trees, if you wish to plan for a life time develop men’’ – this obviously emphasizes learning. Along with motivation, learning has occupied a central role in the micro perspective of O.B. whereas motivation has been a more popular construct, learning has been more dominant in the field of psychology. Researchers believe that learning is the single most important concept in the study of human behaviour. A workers skill/ managers attitude/ supervisor’s motivation/ secretary’s mode of dress are all learning effect. Thus every aspect of human behaviour is responsive to learning experience . All these aspects are like – i) Knowledge/ Language/ Skill ii) Attitudes/ Value systems/ Personality characteristics. iii) Individual loyalties/ Awareness of organisation goal/ Job, even performance safety records have been learned. With respect to organisation situation learning takes place in the form of training whereby people learn the skill/ knowledge/ attitudes & behaviors needed in order to perform their job effectively. No big organisation can ignore the need for training & development in the way of learning to achieve desire performance & thereby organisational goal. Even careful selection of employees does not eliminate the need for training since the people are not moulded to specifications & demand of their jobs. Learning/ Training/ Education are 3- closely related terms but have distinct meanings. Learning : Observable modification of behaviour as a result of some experience. It includes both training & education. Almost every thing that happen to an employee after joining the organisation serves as an experience. Training : Is the act of increasing the knowledge & skill of an employee for doing a particular job. It is concerned with imparting specific skills for particular purposes. Education : It is concerned with increasing general knowledge & understanding the employee’s total environment. Thus when we teach a worker how to assemble two objects or tighten a unit, it is Training. While giving him an engineering course is Education. Again a course in M.B.A. is Education as he is taught certain fundamentals common to all business situation. Where as a clerk who manually types only & put for course for using computer is his Training. Thus the content & scope of learning in the two cases are different. While training is aimed at learning skill, education deals with more general issues in a wider context. Characteristics: If the learning process is different the behaviour of individuals will also different e.g. a labour learns from Trade Union in a particular manner with respect to the organisation while the manager learn from management in different way. Learning can be translated to favourable & unfavourable behaviour. Change is permanent more or less. Sources of learning : Maturing & aging. Instinctive reflexes. Purposes of learning : To be civilized society. At work place we learn to behave in a desired direction. Management wants us to learn so that we perform tasks as determined by them. It gives insights into controlling employees behaviour. We acquire some skill through learning. In organisational setup we perform our task as an effect of training. Indiscipline/ absenteeism/ low output/ maladjustment with colleagues are identified & be removed. Functional areas like knowledge/ skill/ attitude/ personality etc. are improved through learning. Definition : Learning is a process of acquiring knowledge/ information. It is relatively permanent change in behaviour. It is always incremental. It is terminated by measurement. Here change means direction. Thus the entire process of learning is based on understanding & remembering. Whenever there is a stimulus there is a response e.g. when the teacher enters inside the class-room the students stands up. Stimulus is received by 5- sense organs our behaviour goes to goes to spinal chord Learning involve in consequence of O.B. In S-O-B-C model the feedback loop of Organism part represents interactions of different variables, however it can be thought of as learning. Stimuli Behaviour Registration Interpretation Consequence Feedback Laws of Learning : Ist Law : Law of Exerience – This law has two sub-laws (a)Law of use – Due to repeated use or practice of an object the bond between stimulus & response become strong (learning strengthen). (b)Law of Disuse – If there is no practice bond between stimulus & response will become weak. 2nd Law :Law of Effect : Effect may be two type Good If the effect is good the person normally repeat the behaviour or learning is more. Bad If the effect is bad, bonding will be weak or forgetting will be more. 3rd. Law : Law of readiness - This means ready to act i.e. psychologically (mentally) & physiologically ready to act. Act gives him satisfaction. Organism will repeat his behaviour and S - R bond will strong. If the organism is not ready to act & does not give him satisfaction the organism will avoid to accept the situation. Again if the organism is not ready to act but forced to act repeatedly gets success & and Repeat the behaviour S-R bond is strong thereby interested Principles of learning : Learning principles are being considered for designing a training programme. These are – The learner should be motivated to learn. The responses should be meaningfully related to each other & also to the motives of the learner into the situation. The new responses should be reinforced with some rewards so that the responses are made correctly. The new responses so learnt should not be in conflict to old responses. If so, there should be some training to unlearnt old responses before learning new responses. The learner should be an active participant in learning process. The new responses to be learnt must be broken into learnable units & presented in appropriate sequence. Coaching should be available for the learner to develop new responses. The learning situation should be designed considering the ability of learner with respect to speed of learning, depth of learning & must be up to the level of individuals requirement. Types & Theories of learning : Behaviour can be acquired or changed by following types of learning. i) Direct learning – Most of the learning principles that have been developed are based on this approach of learning. ii) Role of cognitive contingencies – Based on cognitive models. iii) Social learning – Behaviouristic theories : Most dominant & widely discussed theory of learning comes out of the behiouristic school of thought. This thought attribute learning to the association or connection between stimulus & response. S-R deals with Classical or Respondent conditioning. R-S deals with Instrumental or Operant conditioning. Where in more attention is made with consequences play in learning OR R-S connection. Classical conditioning : Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment was with dogs & then extrapolated to explain human behaviour. It is the single most famous study even conducted behavioral science. Saliva secreted by a dog was noted when he presented a piece of meat (unconditioned stimulus) to it, Pavlov noted a great deal of salivation (unconditioned response). On the other hand when he merely rang a bell (neutral stimulation) the dog had no salivation. In the next step Pavlov accompanied the meat with the ringing of the bell. After doing this for several times, Pavlov rang the bell without the meat and the dog salivated to the bell alone. The dog become classically conditioned to salivate (conditioned response) to the sound of the bell (conditioned stimulus). This classical experiment was a major break through & has had a lasting impact on the understanding of learning. • Pavlov then paired a black square with the bell and after a number of trails with this pairing it observed that the dog salivated to the black square alone. The original conditioned stimulus (bell) had become a reinforcing unconditioned stimulus for the new conditioned stimulus (black square). This conditioning experiment was a major source of support for the S --- R theory of learning. The overall conclusion from this research can be stated as – ‘’In all probability, any response in an organism’s behavioural repertoire can be conditioned if an unconditioned stimulus can be found that regularly produce the response & if this unconditioned stimulus can be paired in training with a conditioned stimulus’’. However, scientists agree that human are being conditioned to higher degree. Most modern scientists explained that it only represents only a part of total human learning. ‘’Skinner’’ in particular felt that ‘’Classical conditioning’’ explained only respondent (Reflexive) behaviours. He further stated that most human behaviour affects or operates on the environment. Operant condition : It is primarily concerned with learning that occurs as a consequence of behaviour. It is not concerned with the eliciting (draw out) causes of behaviour as in respondent. Difference between Classical(Respondent) & Operant conditioning theory : i)A change in stimulus (unconditioned to conditioned) will elicit a particular response. (stimulus elicit the response) i)One particular response out of many possible ones occurs in a given stimulus situation. (stimulus serves as a limit for a person to emit the responses.) Influenced by the environmental event that precedes (lead) the behaviour. Influenced by the environmental event that follows the behaviour. ii)Unconditional stimulus serving as a reward. ii)Reward will occur only if the Individual behaves the correct response. e.g. Employees work eight hours a day & 5 day a week in order to feed +cloth +shelter himself & his family. Consequences of organisation behaviour can change the environment situation & largely affect subsequent employees behaviours. OR analysis of consequences of O.B. can help accomplish the goal of prediction & control. Thus the operant theory is based on – i) A series of assumptions about behaviour & its environment. ii) A set of definitions which can be used in objective, scientific description of behaviour & its environment. iii) A group of techniques & procedures for the experimental study of behaviour in the laboratory. iv) A large body of facts & principles which have been demonstrated by experiment. Classical Connection S The individual is R Stuck by a pin Shocked by electric current Surprised by a loud sound flinches jumps jumps Operant Connection The individual S works talks to other enters a restaurant works hard R is paid meets more person obtains food receives praise & a promotion Cognitive theory : • As per Edward Tolman learning consisted of a relationship between cognitive environment cues (hint/signal) & expectation. • It was S-S (stimulus-stimulus)approach on the rats by Place-Learning experiment. • He trained a rat to turn right in a ‘T’ in order to obtain food. Then allowed the rat to run from opposite direction of ‘T’ & according to behahiouristic theory the rat should turn right because of past conditioning. However, it moved in direction of food. Tolman concluded that the rat’s behaviour was purposive. The rat formed a cognitive map to figure out how to get to the food. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not a pre-condition for learning to take place. One stimulus led to another stimulus, or S-S, rather than the classical S-R or operant R-S explanation. This theory has been accepted for human relation movement & known as selective learning theory. In selective learning the individual must not only associate stimulus –response & consequence experiences but must also determine which things to connect in the mind. It involves a complex interaction among thinking/emotion/perception & motivation. In other wards there are many cognitions that come into play in selective learning. This can be illustrated by – a worker faced with a job requiring new skill or a system analyst confronted by a new computer language may be using the selective learning process to accomplish their relatively complex tasks. Social Learning theory : It combines both behaviouristic & cognitive concepts and emphasizes the interactive nature of cognitive, behavioural & environmental determinants. It explains that learning can also take place via modeling & self control process. It is based on classical & operant conditioning process but speaks that those are very limited. Modeling process : It is essentially involves observational learning. As per Miller & Dollar learning need not result from Stimulusresponse or Response – consequence connections. Instead, learning takes place through imitating others. Albert Bandura said people can learn from others in two ways – First, the person observes how others act and then acquires a mental picture of the act & its consequences (reward and punishment). Second, the person acts out the acquired image & if the consequences are +ve., he will tend to do it again. If the consequences are –ve., he will tend not to do it again. It is related to operant conditioning but includes attention, retention & motoric reproduction as well as reinforcement apart from response – consequence. Modeling can be effectively apply to H.R.M. Steps followed for Modeling application : i) Precisely identify the goal or target behaviour that will lead to performance improvement. ii) Select the appropriate model or modeling medium, live demonstration/ training film/ videotape. iii) The employee be capable to meet technical skill requirements of the target behaviour. iv) A favourable learning environment which increases the probability of attention, participation & ultimate attainment of target behaviour. v) Model the target behaviour & support by other activities e.g. Role-playing. vi) +ve.ly reinforced all progress of modeled behaviour. vii) Once achieved – strengthen the target behaviour by continuous scheduled of reinforcement. Self-control : It refers to those behaviours that an individual deliberately undertakes to achieve self-selected outcomes. Behavioural self control depends on the individuals ability to manage the stimulus environment & the contingent consequences. The individual selects the goal & implements the procedures to achieves these goals. Example – Asst. manager of a retail shop determined that one of her major problem affecting her effectiveness was her over dependence on her boss. She first use S.O.B.C. model functionally analyze & identify the relevant environmental & cognitive variables. She then set up a combination stimulus & consequence management strategy to decrease her visits (her dependence) with her boss. Self – recording : i) No. of visits. ii) No. of times she restricted herself. iii) What was discussed? iv) What exactly she did not discussed? In this way she resist visiting boss & takes her own action. Feedback served to reinforced the appropriate & punish the inappropriate behaviour. Organizational management skill + Self- management skill together will effectively use the organizational behaviour. Reinforcement : • Is the central role in the learning theories. • Out of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to recur, those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort (punishment) will be less likely to occur. • In other-words desirable or reinforcing consequences will increase the strength of a response & increase its probability of being repeated in future. Undesirable or punishment consequences will weaken the strength of a response & decreases its probability of occurrence in the future. • However, there are controversy like that learning indeed takes place during non-reinforcement trials & the reinforcement only make it worth while. • Reinforcement is any thing that the person finds rewarding. • It can be defined as anything that both increases the strength of response & tends to induce repetitions of the behaviour that preceded the reinforcement. e.g. A manager may reward an employee who found an error in a report, by publicly praising the employee. On examination it is found that the employee is harassed by co-workers & error finding behaviour decreases in the future. This is –ve reinforcement. • Reinforces +ve or –ve will strengths the response & increase the probability of repetition. However, the behaviour in these cases are completely different. • +ve reinforcement strengthens & increases behaviour by the presentation of a desirable consequences. • Thus –ve reinforcement strengths & increases behaviour. While punishment weakens & decreases behaviour. However, both are considered to be forms of -ve control of behaviour. • -ve reinforcement is really a form of social blackmail, because the person will behave in a certain way. • A discussion of escape & avoidance learning is the example for –ve reinforcement. • A worker poses busy while the supervisor visit the shop floor & otherwise a slow mover – is the example of –ve reinforcement Punishment : • A least understood & badly administered aspects of learning. • To modify or control behaviour parents or supervisor often revert to punishment for rearing children or dealing with subordinates. • Definition – Punishment is anything which weakens behaviour & tends to decrease its subsequent frequency. • Punishment usually consist of the undesirable consequences or withdrawal of a desirable consequences before the undesirable consequences occurs (in person’s environment). • Punishment causes – i)Undesirable side effects. ii)No one liked to be punished & thereby he become fearful, anxious or up tight. iii)Punished behaviour temporarily suppressed rather then a permanent change in behaviour. • Punishment is effect if – i)Modified behaviour forces the person to select a desirable alternative behaviour that is then reinforced. ii)If applied at the time the undesirable behaviour actually performed than at a later time. iii)Should not be a reward for undesirable behaviour (shouting at a particular worker all the time by the manager). • It is always advised to attempt for reinforcement, rather than punishment. e.g.