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Foundations of Individual Behavior 2nd chap Individual behavior. Individual behavior is reflected in terms of productivity, absenteeism, job satisfaction and turnover in the organization. Biographical characteristics. By biographical characteristics we mean personal characteristics, Such as age, gender, and (Tenure) length of service etc. Azhar Ali 1 Biographical characteristics. • Because of the difference in biographical characteristics of the employee i.e. age, gender and length of service (tenure), the individuals have difference in their behavior. • We will study how the personal characteristics of the employees affect their behavior within an organization. Azhar Ali 2 Biographical characteristics How age affects the productivity, absenteeism, job satisfaction and turnover of the employees. Age Azhar Ali 3 Age and productivity • There is a widespread belief that job performance declines with the increase in age, regardless of the fact that whether it is true or not, a lot of people believe it. • Older employees bring a number of qualities to work i.e. experience, commitment, judgment, strong work ethics etc. • Researches conclude that organizations with older staff show better performance results as compared with the organizations having younger staff. Azhar Ali 4 Age and turnover • Older employees are less likely to quit their job as compared with young people, because their longer tenure provides them with number of opportunities i.e. higher wage rates, longer paid vacations, and more attractive pension benefits. • So we can say that turnover rate is lower in older employees and is higher in young employees. • Younger employees when find more opportunities for their career growth they try to avail them. Azhar Ali 5 Age and absenteeism • There are two types of absences in organizations. • Avoidable absences and unavoidable absences. • The younger people have higher rate of avoidable absences but older employees have higher rate of unavoidable absences. • the reason is that older people can become ill in crucial times of organizations because of poor health and longer recovery periods. Azhar Ali 6 Conti… Age and job satisfaction • Job satisfaction increases as the employees get older in an organization . Azhar Ali 7 Biographical Characteristics Gender Chapter 2 4 • How gender affects the productivity, job satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover of an employee. Azhar Ali 8 Gender and productivity • There are no consistent differences in problem solving skill, analytical skill, motivation, or learning skill between male and female employees. • Both male and female are equal in productivity. Gender and turnover. female workers have higher quit rate than men. The reason is that they have more home responsibilities. Azhar Ali 9 Gender and absenteeism • The absence rate is higher in women in those cultures where the home and child care is primarily women’s responsibility. Otherwise they have similar absence rate as compared with men. Gender and job satisfaction Females seem to be more satisfied with their jobs. The reason is that they have naturally got the quality of showing conformity with the rules and regulations of the organization. Azhar Ali 10 Biographical Characteristics Tenure Chapter 2 6 • How does the tenure of employee affects the productivity, absenteeism, job satisfaction and turnover of an employee. Azhar Ali 11 Tenure and productivity • There is a positive relationship between length of service and productivity. • The reason is the increased experience of the employee. Tenure and absenteeism. Researches show that tenure and absenteeism are negatively related. Older employees have higher absence rate than younger employees Azhar Ali 12 Tenure and job satisfaction • The older employees have better understanding of job attitude, rules regulations and performance level of the organization. • They have a favorable tendency towards job satisfaction. Tenure and turnover. The longer a person is in a job, the less likely he or she is to quit. Any way the employee’s previous behavior is the best predictor of his future behavior. Azhar Ali 13 Abilities • Definition An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. • We all are not equal in abilities, but it does not mean that we are inferior or superiors to others inherently. • We have strengths and weaknesses in terms of abilities that make us relatively superior or inferior to others in performing certain tasks or activities. Azhar Ali 14 Types of abilities 1.Intellectual abilities Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental activities i.e. thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Azhar Ali 15 Types of intellectual abilities 1. Number aptitude. the ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic. For example accountants 2. Verbal comprehension. the ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other. For example any manager following the policies of organization. Azhar Ali 16 3.Perceptual speed the ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately. For example investigator identifying clues to support a charge. 4.Inductive reasoning. the abilities to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then solve the problem. For example market researcher forecasting demand for a product in the next time period. Azhar Ali 17 5.Spatial visualization the ability to imagine that how an object would look like if its position in space were changed. For example interior decorator decorating an office. 6. Memory. the ability to retain and recall past experiences. For example sales person remembering the names of the customers. Azhar Ali 18 Physical Abilities • Definition. The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, manual labor, strength, and similar talents. Azhar Ali 19 The Ability-Job Fit Ability-Job Fit Employee’s Abilities Job’s Ability Requirements It is the responsibility of the management to first understand what types of abilities their job demands, for which they are hiring an individuals as well as the employee’s abilities and to decide whether the candidate is fit for the announced job or not. Azhar Ali 20 Learning Definition learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience . Learning is related to the nature_nurture issue. learning is related with nurture. For example children become more better player as they grow older. Azhar Ali 21 Learning • Permanent change. Learning is only the permanent change in behavior and a temporary change will not be considered as learning. For example. If a tennis player shows less performance as a result of fatigue it does not mean that player has forgotten how to play tennis. Azhar Ali 22 Types of learning • We will study three types of learning 1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant conditioning 3. Social learning Azhar Ali 23 1) Classical conditioning This theory was developed by a Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning. A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response. Azhar Ali 24 Classical conditioning Pavlov started ringing a bell before presenting the dog with meat. This pairing occurred repeatedly that first he rang the bell and then presented the dog with meat. After repeated experiences that dog started salivating at the sound of the bell, even though Pavlov stopped presenting the meat. Azhar Ali 25 Classical conditioning Basics of classical conditioning • Unconditional stimulus. A stimulus that brings about a response without having been learned. • Unconditional response. A response that is natural and needs no learning. • Conditional stimulus The neutral stimulus which is paired with an unconditional stimulus to bring about a response. formerly caused only by the unconditional stimulus. • Conditional response. a response that after conditioning follows previously neutral stimulus. Azhar Ali 26 Applying classical conditioning to behavior • How we learn to feel fear from creeping animals, although they are harmless, or why we feel fear from darkness or dark objects. • The horror movies are containing darkness. • We feel hunger at the sight of the restaurant. Azhar Ali 27 Operant conditioning • Learning in which a response is strengthened or weakened depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. • According to operant conditioning the organism operates on its environment to produce some desirable result. Azhar Ali 28 Operant conditioning • In operant conditioning we reinforce a behavior by providing or having a favorable or unfavorable result. • A reinforcement is the result we get as a consequence of any action. • If we get positive reinforcement, it means we increase the probability of reoccurrence of a behavior. .i.e. salary cheque. • If we get a negative consequence i.e. a punishment it means we decrease the probability of reoccurrence of a behavior Azhar Ali 29 Social learning • Individuals can also learn through observing what happens to other people and also by being told about something. • For example much of what we have learned comes from watching models. parents, friends, motion pictures, bosses etc, That’s why how we learn driving, swimming, etc. Azhar Ali 30 Process of social learning • There are few steps that are to be followed during social learning • 1) Attentional process people learn from models only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. Azhar Ali 31 Process of social learning • 2) Retention process. A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model’s actions after the model is no more available. Azhar Ali 32 Process of social learning • 3) Motor reproduction process After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. This process then demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities. Azhar Ali 33 Process of social learning • 4) Reinforcement process. individuals will be motivated to perform the modeled behavior if positives incentives or consequences are got or provided. Behaviors that are positively reinforced will be given more attention by the individual, learned better and performed more often. Azhar Ali 34