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chapter 5
Learning
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What is Learning?
Occurs whenever experience or practice
results in a relatively permanent change in
behavior
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Classical Conditioning
A form of learning in which a response
elicited by one stimulus becomes elicited
by a previously neutral stimulus
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Classical Conditioning
Terms
Unconditioned
stimulus (US)
Unconditioned
response (UR)
Neutral stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
(CS)
Conditioned response
(CR)
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Response Acquisition
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Classical Conditioning in Humans
Early research
J. B. Watson classically conditions “Little
Albert” to fear white rats
Mary Cover Jones conditions “Peter” to not
fear white rats
J. Wolpe adapted Jones’ procedure
“desensitization therapy”
Teaching relaxation in periods of fearful or
anxious situations
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Classical Conditioning Is Selective
Why don’t we develop phobias of
everything we pair with harm?
“Preparedness:”
• Certain conditioned responses are acquired
very easily
• A biological predisposition
• “conditioned taste aversions”
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Thorndike’s “Puzzle Box”
Found cats could undo a cage latch more
quickly on successive trials.
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Elements of Operant Conditioning
Learning to make or withhold a certain
response because of its consequences
We make operant behaviors, and
Consequences follow
Consequences take one of two forms
Reinforcers
Punishers
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Establishing an Operantly
Conditioned Response
Operant behaviors should be voluntary
Training can take time
Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations of
the desired behavior
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A Closer Look At Reinforcement
Positive reinforcer
A pleasant event that follows an operant
response, increasing the likelihood that the
response will recur
Negative reinforcer
Strengthens a given response by removing
an aversive stimuli
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Punishment
Punisher
An unpleasant consequence that reduces
the likelihood that we will repeat a
behavior.
Not the same as negative reinforcement
To be effective, punishment needs to be
Swift, sufficient, and certain
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Drawbacks of Punishment
Punishment cannot “unteach” unwanted
behaviors.
Punishment can backfire.
Punishment can teach aggression.
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Learned Helplessness
Learning a “giving-up” response
Classic learned helplessness study
(Seligman)
Findings applied to humans
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Shaping Through Biofeedback
Biofeedback
Use of operant conditioning to control certain
biological functions
Conditioning through biofeedback
Medical treatment
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Factors Shared by Classical and
Operant Conditioning
In both forms of conditioning, a
“contingency” exists
One relationship depends on another
Contingencies in classical conditioning
Contingency between CS and US
Contingencies in operant conditioning
Contingency between action and outcome
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Partial reinforcement schedules
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Extinction
Learned responses can weaken and
disappear
In classical conditioning:
• Occurs when CS-US pairing lapses
In operant conditioning:
• Occurs when reinforcing is withheld
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Spontaneous Recovery
Previously extinguished response
reappears without retraining
In classical conditioning:
• CS predicts US again
In operant conditioning:
• Behavior produces old consequence again
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Response Acquisition and Extinction
in Classical Conditioning
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Factors Involved In Extinguishing
Operant Conditioning
Strength of the original learning
Pattern of reinforcement
Variety of settings in which original
learning took place
Complexity of the behavior
Learning through punishment
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Stimulus Control
The available stimuli exerts a control over
conditioned responses.
Occurs for both classical and operant
conditioning
Takes two forms:
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
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Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to cues similar to
ones we have become conditioned to
Classical
• Stimuli similar to CS will elicit CR
Operant
• Supplying different response to stimulus
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Stimulus Discrimination
Learners can be trained not to generalize,
but rather to make a conditioned response
only to a single stimulus.
Classical
• CR is specific to a certain CS-US pairing
Operant
• Reinforcing only specific responses
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New Learning Based On Original
Learning
Higher order conditioning
Conditioning based on previous learning
Primary reinforcer
A reinforcer that is rewarding in itself
Secondary reinforcer
A reinforcer that acquires its reinforcing
power through association with a primary
reinforcer
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Differences Between Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Passivity
Classical conditioning is passive;
Operant conditioning relies on the learner to
actively participate in learning
Incentives
In operant conditioning reinforcers act as
incentives for learning;
Classical conditioning does not provide
incentives.
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Cognitive Learning
Mental processes that go on when we
learn
Are not directly observable, but inferred
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Latent Learning
Learning happens even when not
demonstrated
Stored internally
Tolman’s rats
Cognitive maps
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Insight & Learning Sets
Insight
Learning that occurs rapidly as a result of
understanding all the elements of a
problem
Learning sets
The ability to become increasingly more
effective in solving problems as more
problems are solved
• i.e., “learning how to learn”
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Learning By Observing
We can learn by observing a model,
without firsthand experience by the
observer
Observational learning
Selective in nature
Bandura’s doll study