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"People travel to wonder at the height of the mountains, at the huge waves of the seas, at the long course of the rivers, at the vast compass of the ocean, at the circular motion of the stars, and yet they pass by themselves without wondering”. -- St. Augustine The Nature of Values One’s personal convictions about what one should strive for in life and how one should behave “A specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” (Rokeach, 1973) All of us have a hierarchy of values that forms our value system. This system is identified by the relative importance we assign to such values as freedom, pleasure, self-respect, honesty, obedience and equality. Values tend to be relatively stable and enduring. A significant portion of our values is established in our early years The process of questioning our values may result in a change. Values are important in OB because they lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation and because they influence our perceptions Values can cloud objectivity and rationality. Desirable end-states of existence Goals a person would like to achieve during lifetime Success Terminal Preferable modes of behavior Means of achieving terminal values Ambitious, Hardworking Instrumental Levels of Values Personal Values Past experience & interactions with others Organisational Cultural Values Values Heart of Dominant beliefs held by Organisational Culture collective society Types of Values Work Values Intrinsic Work Values Extrinsic Work Values Ethical Values Justice Values Utilitarian Values Moral Rights Values Intrinsic Values Extrinsic Values Interesting work Challenging work Learning new things Making important contributions Responsibility and autonomy Being creative High pay Job security Job benefits Status in wider community Social contacts Time with family Time for hobbies One’s personal convictions about what is right and wrong Utilitarian Moral Rights Distributive Justice • Managers must become capable of working with people across different cultures. • Because values differ across cultures, an understanding of these differences should be helpful in explaining and predicting behaviour of employees from different countries. • Geert Hofstede surveyed 1,16,000 IBM employees in 40 countries in their work related values – found managers and employees vary on 5 value dimensions of national culture. 1. Power Distance: The degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally/ relatively equal (low power distance) to extremely unequal (high power distance) 2. 3. 4. 5. Individualism vs Collectivism: Degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of a group. Quantity of life vs Quality of life: Quantity: degree to which values such as assertiveness, the acquisition of money and material goods and competition prevails. Quality: The degree with which we value relationships, show sensitivity and concern for the welfare of others. Uncertainty avoidance: Degree to which people in a country, prefer structured or unstructured situations.; Risk taking. Long term and short term orientation: Long: look to future and value thrift and persistence Short: Values past and present; emphasis respect for traditions and fulfilling social obligations. Individualism High Power Distance High Uncertainty Achievement Avoidance Orientation Malaysia USA France Germany Japan Germany Japan USA India USA Japan Hong Kong China Collectivism Low power Distance Long-Term Orientation Japan China USA Japan Australia South Korea Netherlands Germany USA Singapore Sweden Low Uncertainty Nurturing Avoidance Orientation Russia Short-Term Orientation Assertiveness Future Orientation Gender Differentiation Uncertainty Avoidance Power Distance Individualism / Collectivism In-Group Collectivism Performance Orientation Humane Orientation Set of formal rules and standards, based on ethical values and beliefs about what is right and wrong, that employees can use to make appropriate decisions when the interests of other individuals or groups are at stake Whistleblowers A motivational state arising from holding logically inconsistent cognitions Incompatibility between two or more attitudes, or between attitudes and behavior Ways to eliminate dissonance: Add consonant cognitions Reduce importance of dissonant cognitions Change one of the dissonant cognitions Engage in boring pegturning task Paid $1 or $20 to lie to next participant about the experiment, or no lie control group Afterwards asked whether they liked the task “Attitude is more important than the past, than education, than money, than circumstances, than what other people think or say or do. It is more important than appearances, giftedness or skill. It will make or break a company, a church or a home.” -Charles Swindoll There are so many things in life you have little control over, such as the political environment, the weather, the job market, the economy. But there is one aspect of your life that you do have the power to control, and that’s your attitude. Each and every moment of every day you decide what your attitude will be --about yourself, your job, your family and friends, change, responsibilities, etc. “An organized predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner toward a specified class of objects” (Shaver, 1977) Position on a bipolar affective or evaluative dimension (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) Networks of interrelated beliefs that reside in long-term memory and are activated when the attitude object or issue is encountered (Tourangeau & Rasinksi, 1988) “Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people or events (Robbins, 2007) “A general and enduring positive or negative feeling toward some person, object, or issue” “An association between an object and an evaluation in memory” “ Attitude is a learned internal response to a given stimulus, resulting in observable behavior ” An attitude is defined as a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object. While Values represent global beliefs that influence behaviour, across all situations, attitudes relate only to behaviour directed towards specific objects, persons or situations. Values and attitudes generally, but not always, are in harmony. Study: Job attitudes of middle aged male employees stable over a time frame of 5 years – even those who changed jobs / occupation. Attitudes are translated into behaviour through behavioural intentions. An individual’s intentions to engage in a given behaviour is the best predictor of that behaviour. Experience with Object Mass Communication Attitudes Economic Status Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Vicarious Learning Neighbourhood Family & Peer Groups Formation of Attitudes Attitudes vary in a number of important ways Valence (positive or negative) Intensity Strength Accessibility Basis Affective Component Emotional or feeling Cognitive Component Opinion or belief Behavioral Component Intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something Work Attitudes Negative / Positive Attitudes and Behavior Attitude: Act Behavior Intent Subjective Norm Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen) Behavior Attitudes and Behavior Behavior beliefs Evaluation Attitude: Act Behavior Intent Normative beliefs Motivation to Comply Subjective Norm Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen) Behavior Attitudes and Behavior Behavior beliefs Evaluation Attitude: Act Behavior Intent Normative beliefs Motivation to Comply Subjective Norm Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen) Behavior Constraints Collections of feelings, beliefs, and thoughts about how to behave that people currently hold about their jobs and organizations Comfortable existence Family security Sense of accomplishment Self-respect Social recognition Exciting Life How people feel at the time they actually perform their jobs. More transitory than values and attitudes. Determining factors: Personality Work situation Circumstances outside of work Positive Excited Enthusiastic Active Strong Peppy Elated Negative Distressed Fearful Scornful Hostile Jittery Nervous Intense, short-lived feelings that are linked to specific cause or antecedent Emotions can feed into moods Emotional labor Display Rules Feeling Rules Expression Rules Perceptions Beliefs Attitude Feelings Behavioral Intentions Behavior Emotional Episodes Values Attitudes (most stable) (moderately stable) Moods and Emotions (most changing) Job related attitudes tap +ve or –ve evaluations that employees hold about aspects of their work environments. 3 major attitudes: 1. Job Satisfaction: an individual’s general attitude towards his/her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds +ve attitudes toward the job. 2. Job Involvement: measures degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his/her job & considers his/her perceived performance level important to self worth. People with high job involvement strongly identifies with and really care about the kind of work they do. 3. Organization commitment: A state in which an employee identifies with a particular orgn and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the orgn. Spector: “the degree to which people like their jobs” “How people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs” Locke: “ A pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” Work characteristics Job Satisfaction(s) Porter (1961): Need Satisfaction Desired-Actual Minnesota 20 “reinforcers” (based on Murray’s 12 needs) Locke Work Adjustment Model (1976): Values “Job satisfaction results from appraisal of one’s job as attaining…one’s important job values” Provided these values are congruent with basic needs Objective characteristics Perceived characteristics Needs/ Values Job Satisfaction(s) Objective characteristics Perceived characteristics Frame of Reference Needs/ Values Job Satisfaction(s) A chink in the armor: are perceptions veridical with objective reality? Social Information Processing model Dispositional View Social construction of attitudes vs objective characteristics) Salancik & Pfeffer (1978) Roots in Schachter & Singer (1962) Attitude statements based on: Perception of affective components Social context cues Self-attributions about behavior Event Generalized Arousal JS Cues Staw & Ross (1985) Surprising stability over time/situations Staw, Childhood temperament predicts adult JS Arvey Bell & Clausen (1986) et al. (1989) JS has hereditary component (30%) General questions about behavioral genetics Gerhart (1987): Situation AND Disposition Compared effects on current satisfaction of prior satisfaction, pay, job complexity Job complexity had strongest effect Why isn’t extrinsic satisfaction heritable? Why is JS heritable? A JS gene? Trait NA/PA may be key factor Some reason to believe that it may have biological basis, and thus inheritable Those high in NA are more likely to: Notice negative stimuli Evaluate stimuli in negative terms Recall negative stimuli Create interpersonal conflict dissatisfaction Weiss & Cropanzano (1996) Events Affect JS Mood at work JS Interpretations JS Weiss et al. (1999) Disposition Brief (1998) Disposition Brief & Weiss (2002) Interpretations JS Disposition Mood Fuller et al. (2003) Strain JS Stress events Mood Low Turnover Organisational Factors Job Satisfaction Low Absenteeism Outcomes Expected / Valued Group Factors High Turnover Outcomes Received Individual Factors Job Dissatisfaction High Absenteeism A person’s job is more than the obvious activities of shuffling papers, waiting on customers, or driving a truck. Jobs require interaction with co-workers & bosses, following orgn rules and policies, meeting performance standards, living with working conditions which often are less than ideal, etc. Happy workers are not necessarily productive workers. However, productive workers are normally happy workers. Orgns with more satisfied workers tend to be more effective than with less satisfied workers. Generally dissatisfied workers absent themselves more. Liberal sick benefits also contribute. Also if you have interesting side activities. Satisfaction is negatively related to turnover. Other factors include the labour market, expectations about other job opportunities, etc. Personality Extroverts tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction than introverts Values Those with strong intrinsic work values is more likely than one with weak intrinsic work values to be satisfied with a job that is meaningful but requires long hours and offer poor pay Work Situation tasks a person performs people a jobholder interacts with surroundings in which a person works the way the organization treats the jobholder Social Influence: influence that individuals or groups have on a person’s attitudes and behavior Coworkers Family Other reference groups (unions, religious groups, friends) Culture Work Itself Pay Promotion Supervision Co-Workers Working Conditions Job Involvement Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) Organisational Commitment Employee Well-Being Feelings and beliefs about the employing organization as a whole Affective commitment Continuance commitment Affective commitment is more positive for organizations than continuance commitment Performance Absenteeism OCB Turnover Customer Satisfaction Workplace Deviance Motivation to attend work is affected by Job satisfaction Organization’s absence policy Other factors Ability to attend work is affected by Illness and accidents Transportation problems Family responsibilities Fairness Job Satisfaction OCB Trust Employee dissatisfaction can be expressed in a number of ways. Rather than quit, employees can complain, insubordinate, steal orgn property, etc. Active VOICE EXIT Constructive Destructive LOYALTY NEGLECT Passive