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17_02 Low consensus Few people dislike Ralph. + High consistency Dad is always rude to Ralph. + Low distinctiveness Dad is rude to all your friends. Internal attribution = Fig17_2 Dad's rudeness is due to something within him: "Dad is an old grouch." (A) High consensus Most people dislike Ralph. + High consistency Dad is always rude to Ralph. + High distinctiveness Dad is never rude to your other friends. External attribution = Dad's rudeness is caused by something outside Dad: "Ralph is a jerk." (B) Low consensus Few people dislike Ralph. Low consistency + Dad is usually nice to Ralph. High distinctiveness + Dad is never rude to your other friends. (C) External attribution = Dad's rudeness is caused by something outside Dad: "Ralph must have done something wrong." 49 MARTY SELIGMAN Fig132 Good events Internal Permanent Global External Temporary Specific Bad events External Temporary Specific Internal Permanent Global Optimists Pessimists SOME BIASES IN SOCIAL PERCEPTION Bias Description InRev17a Importance of first impression Ambiguous information is interpreted in line with a first impression, and the initial schema is recalled better and more vividly than any later correction to it. Actions based on this impression may elicit behavior that confirms it. Fundamental attribution error The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal factors. Actor-observer bias The tendency for actors to attribute their own behavior to external causes and for observers to attribute the behavior of others to internal factors. Self-serving bias The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors and one’s failures to external factors. Unrealistic optimism The tendency to assume that positive events are more likely, and negative events are less likely, to occur to oneself than to others. 17_04 Fig17_4 CENTRAL ROUTE High elaboration Careful processing of information Degree of attitude change depends on quality of arguments Careful processing does not occur Attitude change depends on presence of persuasion cues Persuasive message PERIPHERAL ROUTE Low elaboration 17_05 LOW INVOLVEMENT HIGH INVOLVEMENT +0.6 +0.6 +0.4 +0.4 +0.2 +0.2 Agreement 0 0 -0.2 -0.2 -0.4 -0.4 -0.6 -0.6 Low High Expertise of communicator Strong arguments Weak arguments Low High Expertise of communicator 17_06 Favorable 12 11 Fig17_6 10 Attitude toward the task 9 8 7 Unfavorable $20.00 $1.00 Experimental condition High justification (low dissonance) Low justification (high dissonance) FORMING AND CHANGING ATTITUDES Type of Influence Description Modeling and conditioning Attitudes are usually formed through observation of how others behave and speak about an attitude object, as well as through classical and operant conditioning. Elaboration likelihood model People change attitudes through either a central or peripheral route, depending on factors such as personal involvement, “cognitive busyness,” and personality characteristics. Cognitive dissonance and self-perception Inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors can produce attitude change, as can reviewing one’s behavior in light of circumstances. InRev17b 17_07 12 Fig17_7 11 10 9 Attraction 8 7 6 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Proportion of similar attitudes 0.6 0.7 0.8 17_09 STERNBERG” S TRIANGULAR THEORY OF Liking = Intimacy Alone (friendship without passion or long-term commitment) Fig17_10 INTIMACY LOVE Romantic Love = Companionate Intimacy + Passion Love = Intimacy (lovers physically + Commitment and emotionally (long-term committed attracted to each friendship such other but without as a marriage in Consummate Love = commitment, as in which the passion Intimacy + Passion a summer romance) has faded) + Commitment (a complete love consisting of all three CO components an MM N ITM O I ideal difficult to attain) S ENT S PA Infatuation = Empty Love = Passion Alone Commitment Alone (passionate, obsessive (decision to love Fatuous Love = love at first sight another without Passion + Commitment without intimacy intimacy or passion) (commitment based on passion but without or commitment) time for intimacy to develop shallow relationship such as a whirlwind courtship) 33 Female reproductive strategies Females can produce a limited number of children over a time span Fig101 Females seek males with resources for protecting them and their offspring Females evaluate males on such dimensions as earning capacity, ambition, status, and possessions Females attracted by love acts that display a male's resources Male reproductive strategies Males can conceive children from puberty until death Males seek females capable of reproducing Males evaluate females on the basis of youth, health, and beauty Males attracted by love acts that signal a female's reproductive capability LINKAGES to Social Cognition CONSCIOUSNESS Can we ever be unbiased about anyone? (p. 625) HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Do children perceive others as adults do? (p. 432) PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Can negative selfimage lead to mental disorders? (p. 606)