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Social Psychology Chapter 17 Social Psychology- do others have an influence on our feelings, thoughts and behaviors? Area of psychology that attempts to explain how the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others influences that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of others Why are first impressions so important? You are a manager in a fast food restaurant who is waiting for a prospective employee to come in for an interview. The scheduled time for the interview has passed. The prospect has not called. He is 10 minutes late. What are you thinking? The applicant arrives after another 10 minutes have passed. He explains that he has overslept and had to change a flat tire before coming to the interview. His hair is uncombed, and he looks like he hasn’t shaved in a couple of days. His T-shirt has stains on it, pants are greasy, nails have dirt under them, and he is wearing flip flops. Ten minutes into the interview, he lights a cigarette. Do you hire him? As a manager, do you have any evidence of how this applicant will perform on the job? Again, why are first impressions so important? We are all subject to the primary effect, the tendency to attend to initial information more than information that is presented later Simple acts have a real impact on first impressions (a smile, a hand shake) Once a first impression is formed, the impression acts as a framework through which later information is interpreted How are opinions about behavior formed? 2 types of Attributions Definition: An attribution is an inference about the cause of our own or someone else’s behavior Situational attributions: people attribute the cause of a behavior to some factor in the environment Example: the prospective employee had dirty jeans on, was late, and dirty nails because he was changing a tire Dispositional attributions: people attribute the behavior to something internal- some personal trait, motive, or attitude Example: the prospective employee wore dirty jeans, had dirty nails and was late because that is the way this person is- lazy, not responsible and sloppy. Actor-Observer Effect People tend to attribute their own behavior usually to situational factors and the behavior of others usually to internal or dispositional or internal factors “I can’t help what happened…it was outside of my control.” “What’s wrong with that person? Why doesn’t he stop that behavior?” Attraction What makes you like, or even fall in love with one person and ignore or react negatively to another? Proximity and Attraction: a sure way to “hook up” It is easier to develop relationships with people who are close at hand Proximity increases the likelihood that there will be repeated contacts, and mere exposure tends to increase attraction (the mere-exposure effect) Ex.: Internet relationships: may live thousands of miles apart but experience electronic proximity via WWW Brother married his lab partner Physical Attractiveness and Attraction: do looks count? Major factor in choice of romantic partners People attribute positive qualities to those who are physically attractive (halo effect) Attractiveness is a generally universal principle Details of appearance (meanings of facial expression) vary across cultures Teacher bias, (preferential behavior) shown towards children who are attractive Other hypothesis concerning attraction People are often attracted to individuals who are similar to themselves Others argue that they choose mates whose characteristics complement their own (opposites attract) Evolutionary psychologists argue that men and women are attracted to one another on the basis of what each can contribute to the creation and support to the family Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance: are you an individual? Conformity is changing or adopting a behavior or attitude in order to be consistent with the social norms of a group of the expectations of other people. Ex.: we conform to other’s expectations to have their approval, love, or acceptance Social norms are the standards of behavior and the attitudes that are expected of members of a particular group. Ex.: necessary to have a society- drive on one side of the road and follow traffic signs Solomon Asch Did a very well-known experiment on conformity Eight participants- only one nonconfederate participant, all others deliberately chose wrong answer In most cases, subjects conformed to the incorrect, unanimous majority Obedience: how atrocities can happen and be rationalized Milgram conducted a classic study of obedience (see intro to chapter) Shocking participant even though in apparent extreme pain Ordinary citizens delivered potentially lifethreatening shocks until presence of another person who refused to go along with this- gave participants the courage to defy authority Ex.: Nazi Germany concentration camp Compliance: three ways to get your own way or what you want Acting in accordance with the wishes, suggestions, or direct requests of other people There are 3 techniques (strategies) used to gain compliance: Foot-in-the-door technique Door-in-the-face technique Low-ball technique Foot-in-the-Door Technique Strategy designed to gain a favorable response to a small request at first, with the intent of making the person more likely to agree later to a larger request Ex.: Carpet company that guarantees they will, at no cost, clean one carpet and then get you to agree to do the rest of the house for pay Door-in-the-Face Technique Strategy in which someone makes a large, unreasonable request with the expectation that the person will refuse but will be more likely to respond favorably to a smaller request later Guilt often used by charitable organizations- “please don’t hang up, even a dollar will help…” Low-ball Technique A very attractive initial offer is made to get people to commit to an action, then the terms are made less favorable Often see this technique on infomercials on TV- “but that’s not all!”- improve the deal by slashing the price if you order in ten minutes Group Influence-how does being in a group influence one’s behavior? When others are present, either as an audience or as co-actors, a person’s performance on easy tasks is usually improved, but performance on difficult tasks is usually impaired Social Facilitation A term used by psychologists to refer to both negative and positive effects of the presence of others on our behavior Positive effect: before going out, we usually engage in some type of grooming- combing hair, putting on makeup, choosing our clothing carefully Negative effect: may drink to excess at a party because others are doing it Social Loafing People’s tendency to put forth less effort when they are working with others on a common task than when working alone Less likely to occur when individual output is monitored or when people have a personal stake in the outcome (one grade shared) Ex.: group projects, slacker participants and those who carry the group Group Polarization Following group discussions, group decisions usually shift to a more extreme position in whatever direction the members were leaning toward initially Groupthink happens when individuals adopt a group’s opinion without any objective consideration of the presence or lack of supporting facts Social Role Expectations: does our role dictate how we act? Individual behavior can be guided by the expectations associated with social roles Ex: in childrearing, mothers and fathers follow different behavioral guidelinesMoms tend to be the nurturing force, Dad may be the disciplinarian Policemen and prison guards are notorious for their ‘tough guy’ behaviors Attitudes and Attitude Change Attitudes have three components: Cognitive: thoughts and beliefs about an attitudinal object Emotional: feelings toward the object Behavioral: how you will behaviorally act towards the object What are your attitudes towards SNAKES? How many of you dislike snakes? Cognitive: snakes can be dangerous Emotional: they’re creepy and scare me Behavioral: how would you react if I released a snake and it slithered by you on the floor? There is an obvious cognitive-emotionalbehavioral link attached to your attitude about this object! Cognitive Dissonance The conflict that is associated with unpleasant feelings that happen when people become aware of inconsistencies in their attitudes and behavior People use defense mechanisms (rationalization) to terminate the unpleasant feelings Bad Habits and Cognitive Dissonance How many of you smoke? Do you know the dangers associated with smoking? Do you know anyone who has cancer or who has died of cancer associated with smoking? If you know that smoking is associated with lung cancer and heart disease, why will you not quit smoking? The rationalization (excuses) are the cognitive dissonance. “I only smoke when I am drinking. I have cut back to one pack per day.” Persuasion The deliberate attempt to influence attitudes and/or behavior of another person This occurs at work, in social situations, and in family life 4 elements of persuasion Source: who is doing the persuading Audience: who is being persuaded Message: what is being said Medium: means by which the message is transmitted Can we be taught to be persuasive? YES! You can better persuade your audience if… You are credible- i.e., you have expertise (knowledge), are trustworthy, possess integrity You are attractive- i.e., have celebrity status, or are similar to your audience You are likeable Pro-social Behavior What motivates one person to help another? What is the by-stander effect, and why does it occur? Definition: pro-social behavior is behavior that benefits others, such as helping, cooperation, and sympathy Pro-Social Behavior: Altruism Behavior that is aimed at helping others, requires some self-sacrifice, and is not performed for personal gain We help out of empathy- to put ourselves in another’s shoes Volunteering at a homeless shelter Bystander Effect As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the probability that the victim will receive help from them decreases, and the help, if given, is likely to be delayed Kitty Genovese Case: 1964- attacked and eventually murdered over 1 hour in front of 38 of her neighbors in Queens, NY- not a single person called police or intervened Aggression The intentional infliction of psychological or physical harm on others Can occur at home, work, or on the road Biological factors: more men than women display aggressive behavior Hypothesis: there is a link between testosterone and aggression Aggression, continued Environmental factors: Frustration-aggression hypothesis: frustration doesn’t always cause aggression, but likely to do so if it’s intense and seems to be unjustified (arouses negative emotions) Scapegoating: targeting someone/population with displaced aggression (minority groups) Social learning theory: aggressive behavior learned through modeling (influence of violent video games, TV, song lyrics) Prejudice and Discrimination What factors contribute to the development of prejudice and discrimination? Prejudice: attitudes (usually negative) toward others based on gender, religion, race, or membership in a particular group Involves belief and emotions and can escalate into hatred Discrimination: behavior- actions (usually negative) towards others based on their gender, religion, race, or membership in a group Minority racial groups (racism) Women (sexism) Elderly (ageism) Handicapped, homosexuals, religious groups What are the roots of prejudice and discrimination? Realistic conflict theory: as competition increases, so does prejudice, discrimination, hatred amongst competitive groups American settlers and Native Americans (land) Americans and the Irish and German immigrants (economic scarcity) In-Groups and Out-Groups In-group: social group with a strong sense of togetherness, from which others are excluded Out-group: individuals specified by the in-group as not belonging Social-Cognitive theory People learn attitudes of prejudice and hatred the same way that they learn other attitudes Social cognition: the ways that people process social information Stereotypes: widely shared beliefs about the characteristic traits, attitudes, behaviors of the members of the various social groups- including the assumption that they are all alike