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chapter 14
The major motives of life:
Love, sex, food, and work
chapter 14
Overview
Motives to love
Motives for sex
Motives to eat
Motives to achieve
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Defining motivation
An inferred process within a person or animal
that causes movement either toward a goal or
away from an unpleasant situation
Intrinsic motivation: the pursuit of an activity for its own
sake
Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of an activity for external
rewards such as money or fame
chapter 14
The biology of love
Neurological origins of passionate love begin in
infancy when infants attach to mother.
Certain neurotransmitters and hormones involved
in pleasure and reward are activated in motherbaby, adult lover, and close friend bonds.
Endorphins
Functional MRI’s have shown other neurological
similarities.
Certain parts of the brains light up when people look at pictures of
sweethearts and biological children.
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The psychology of love
The need for affiliation
The motive to associate with other people, by seeking friends,
companionship, or love
Predictors of love
Proximity: choosing friends and lovers from the set of people
who are closest to us
Similarity: choosing friends and lovers who are like us in looks,
attitudes, beliefs, personality, and interests
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The attachment theory
of love
Like infants to their caregivers, adults have
attachment styles to their partners.
Secure: rarely jealous or worried about abandonment
Avoidant: distrustful, avoids intimate attachments
Anxious-ambivalent: agitated and worried partner will leave
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Ingredients of love
Sternberg’s triangular theory of love
Passion: euphoria and sexual excitement
Intimacy: being free to talk about things, feeling close to
and understood by loved ones
Commitment: needing to be with the other person, being
loyal
Ideal love involves all three.
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The psychology of
desire
Motives for sex
Enhancement
Intimacy
Coping
Self-affirmation
Partner approval
Peer approval
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Sexual coercion & rape
Persistent gender differences occur in
perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual
coercion.
Of a representative sample of 3000 people 25% of the women
said that a man (usually husband or boyfriend) had forced them
to do something sexually.
Only 3% of men said they had ever forced a woman into a
sexual act.
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Culture of desire
Sexual scripts: sets of implicit rules that
specify proper sexual behavior for a person in
a given situation, varying with the person’s
age, culture, and gender
Role of sexual scripts in African American women’s behavior
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The riddle of sexual
orientation
Factors which do not explain homosexuality
A smothering mother
An absent father
Emotional problems
Same-sex play in childhood and adolescence
Parental practices
Role models
Seduction by an older adult
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The genetics of weight
Heavy people are no more or less emotionally
disturbed than average weight people.
Heaviness is not always caused by
overeating.
Set point
The genetically influenced weight range for an individual, maintained by
biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves, and
metabolism
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Body weights of twins
Identical twins are
more similar in body
weight than fraternal
twins
Whether raised together
or apart
Genetic factors play
a large role in body
weight.
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The role of leptin
Leptin alters the brain chemistry that influences how
animals eat as adults.
Regulates weight by strengthening neural circuits in
hypothalamus that reduce appetite and weakening
neural circuits that strengthen appetite
Has led to hypothesis that overfeeding infants while
hypothalamus is developing may produce childhood
obesity
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The complexity of
weight
Appetite suppressants alone often fail
to help individuals lose weight.
Other factors
Other genes and body chemicals
Hormones which regulate hunger
Receptors in nose, mouth, and stomach
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The overweight debate
Weight or fitness?
Many researchers believe that individuals who are
overweight and physically fit are actually healthier than
individuals who are sedentary and thin.
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Environment and
obesity
Environmental factors affecting weight:
Increased abundance of low cost, very high fat foods
Eating on the run instead of leisurely meals
Energy saving devices such as remote controls
Driving rather than walking or biking
Watching television or videos instead of exercising
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Cultural attitudes
In many cultures, where food is a rarer commodity,
fat is viewed as a sign of health and affluence in
men, sexual desirability in women.
While people of all ethnicities and social classes
have been getting heavier, the cultural ideal for
white women has been getting thinner.
The cultural ideal for men has also changed.
Muscles used to mean working class, now muscular bodies
symbolize affluence.
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Biology vs. culture
People from cultures that regard overweight as a
sign of health and sexiness are more likely to be
obese.
People from cultures emphasizing thinness are
more likely to have eating disorders.
Many with eating disorders have an irrational
terror of being too fat.
Bulimia
Anorexia nervosa
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Ideal body image
Which image is ideal for your sex?
Which comes closest to your body?
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Bulimia and anorexia
Bulimia
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of
excessive eating (binges) followed by forced vomiting
or use of laxatives (purging)
Anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat,
a distorted body image, radically reduced
consumption of food, and emaciation
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Influences on eating
disorders
Extremely slim television stars
Genetic mutations or set points that conflict with
cultural standards
For men, desire to be more “manly”
Unrealistic standards of beauty and self-criticism
Psychological factors such as depression,
anxiety, low self-esteem, perfectionism, distorted
body image, and pressure from others
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Motives to achieve
Need for achievement: a learned motive to meet
personal standards of success and excellence in a
chosen area
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Importance of goals
Goals improve motivation when. . .
the goal is specific.
the goal is challenging but achievable.
the goal is framed in terms of approach goals instead of
avoidance goals.
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Types of goals
Performance goals: goals framed in terms of
performing well in front of others, being
judged favorably, and avoiding criticism
Mastery goals: goals framed in terms of
increasing one’s competence and skills
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Effort vs. intelligence
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Expectations and selfefficacy
Self-fulfilling prophecy
An expectation that comes true
because of the tendency to act in
ways to bring it about
Self-efficacy
A person’s belief that he/she is
capable of producing desired
results, such as mastering new
skills and reaching goals
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Working conditions
Conditions that increase job involvement,
motivation, and satisfaction
Work provides sense of meaningfulness.
Employees have control over part of work.
Tasks are varied.
Company maintains clear and consistent rules.
Employees have supportive relationships with superiors and coworkers.
Employees receive useful feedback.
Company offers opportunities for growth.
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Opportunities to
achieve
When a person
lacks fair chance
to make it, he or
she may be less
than successful.
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Motivational conflicts
Approach-approach conflict
Equally attracted to two activities or goals
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Choosing between the “lesser of two evils”
Approach-avoidance conflict
One activity or goal has both positive and negative elements
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
Several choices, each with advantages and disadvantages
chapter 14
Maslow’s pyramid of
needs
Needs arranged
hierarchically.
Low-level needs must
be met before higherlevel needs will be
addressed.
Psychology in
Action (8e)
PowerPoint  Lecture Notes Presentation
Chapter 11:
Gender and Human Sexuality
32
Lecture Overview
•
•
•
•
Sex and Gender
The Study of Human Sexuality
Sexual Behavior
Sexual Problems
33
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms
• Sex: biological maleness or femaleness
including chromosomal sex; also, sexual
behaviors of intercourse/masturbation
• Gender: psychological and sociocultural
meanings added to biological sex
34
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms (Cont.)
• Gender Identity: self-identification as
either a man or a woman
• Gender Role: societal expectations for
normal and appropriate male and female
behavior
35
Sex and Gender—Important/Confusing
Terms (Cont.)
• Sexual Orientation: primary
erotic attraction toward
members of same sex
(homosexual, gay, or
lesbian), both sexes
(bisexual), or other sex
(heterosexual)
36
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms (Cont.)
• Transsexual: gender identity does not match
gonads, genitals, or internal accessory organs
• Transvestite: individuals who cross-dress for
emotional and/or sexual gratification; from
Latin trans, meaning “to change,” and vestire,
meaning “clothing”
37
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms (Cont.)
• Androgyny: combining
characteristics typically
male (assertive,
athletic) with those
considered typically
female (yielding,
nurturing); from Greek
andro, meaning “male,”
and gyn, meaning
“female”
38
Dimensions of Sex and Gender
Sex Dimensions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Chromosomes
Gonads
Hormones
External genitals
5. Internal accessory
organs
6. Secondary sex
characteristics
7. Sexual orientation
Male
XY
Testes
Androgens
Penis, scrotum
Prostate, seminal
vesicles,
vas deferens
Beard, low voice,
sperm emission
Heterosexual, gay,
bisexual
Female
XX
Ovaries
Estrogens
Labia, clitoris,
vaginal opening
Vagina, uterus,
fallopian tubes,
cervix
Breasts,
menstruation
Heterosexual,
lesbian, bisexual
39
Male and Female
Internal and External Sex Organs
40
Dimensions of Sex and
Gender (Continued)
Gender Dimensions
Male
Female
8. Gender identity*
Perceives self
as male
Perceives self
as female
9. Gender role**
Masculine
Feminine
*Gender identity is self-defined
**Gender role is socially-defined
41
Gender Role Development
• Social-learning theory--suggests gender
roles develop as children:
• receive rewards/punishments for
gender role behaviors and attitudes.
• watch and imitate the behaviors and
attitudes of others.
42
Gender Role Development
• Cognitive-developmental theory--suggests
children form gender schemas (mental
images) of correct behaviors for boys versus
girls.
43
Sex Differences
• Physical anatomy (height, weight, body
build, reproductive organs)
• Functional and structural brain differences:
– Hypothalamus
– Corpus callosum
– Cerebral hemispheres
44
45
Gender Differences
• Cognitive abilities
– Women score higher on verbal skills.
– Men score higher on math and
visuospatial skills.
• Aggression
– Men exhibit greater physical
aggressiveness.
– Women supposedly higher on relational
aggression, but no clear differences.
46
Gender Differences in
Sexuality
• Evolutionary perspectives suggest that
men tend to marry younger women for
fertility reasons
• Women are attracted to men who are
mature and affluent
47
• Women’s sexual fantasies are more likely
than men’s to involve a familiar partner
and to include affection and commitment.
• Men’s fantasies are more likely to involve
strangers, multiple partners, and a focus
on specific sex acts.
• Aggression is more closely linked to
sexuality for men than for women.
48
• Physically coercive sex is primarily a male
activity
• Women’s sexuality shows greater
plasticity. That is, women’s sexual beliefs
and behavior are more easily shaped by
cultural, social, and situational factors.
49
Infidelity
• Kinsey and his associates found that 36
percent of husbands and 25 percent of wives
reported being unfaithful.
• Gender differences in motivation for infidelity
suggest that marital dissatisfaction tends to
be higher among unfaithful women than
unfaithful men and that a male’s infidelity is
more likely than a female’s to be a “one night
stand,” to involve someone of limited
acquaintance, and to include sexual
intercourse.
50
Infidelity
• Men and women do not differ in either the
frequency or the magnitude of the jealousy
• They differ in their sensitivity to the cues that
trigger jealousy
• Would you be more distressed if you
found that your romantic partner was (1)
having sexual intercourse with someone
else or (2) was becoming emotionally
involved with someone else?
51
Infidelity
• 511 college students
• 83 percent of women found their
partner’s emotional infidelity more
upsetting, whereas only 40 percent of
the men did.
• In contrast, 60 percent of the men
experienced their partner’s sexual
infidelity as more upsetting and only 17
percent of the women did
52
The Study of Human Sexuality
• Havelock Ellis--among the
first physicians to
scientifically study human
sexuality. He:
– found that nocturnal
emissions were not
dangerous.
– emphasized reliable and
accurate sex
information.
53
The Study of Human Sexuality
• Alfred Kinsey--among the first to use surveys
and interviews to study sexual practices and
beliefs.
• Masters and Johnson--among the first to use
laboratory experimentation and observation
to study the sexual response cycle.
54
Sexual Behavior:
Sexual Arousal and Response
• Masters and Johnson’s Sexual
Response Cycle
• Excitement (increasing levels of arousal
and engorgement)
• Plateau (leveling off of high arousal)
• Orgasm (pleasurable release of tension)
• Resolution (return to nonaroused state)
55
Sexual Behavior—
Sexual Response Cycle
56
Sexual Behavior—Gender and
Cultural Diversity (Two Theories)
Why are men commonly believed to have
greater sexual drive, interest, and activity
than women? Two theories:
– 1. Evolutionary Perspective:
Provides adaptive value. Men with multiple
partners maximize their genes’ chances
for survival, and a woman’s genes’
chances for survival increase with a good
protector and provider.
57
– 2. Social Role Approach: Sex differences
reflect cultural roles and division of labor.
Men are protectors and providers, women
are child bearers and homemakers.
• Note: Social role perspective fits better in
cultures where women have less
reproductive freedom and educational
equality.
58
Sexual Behavior—Sexual Orientation
• Myths of Homosexuality:
– Seduction theory: gays and lesbians seduced
in childhood by adults of same sex.
– “By default” theory: gays and lesbians unable
to attract partners of opposite sex.
– Poor parenting: gay men = domineering
mothers, weak fathers’ lesbian women = weak
or absent mothers .
– Modeling theory: children imitate gay or
lesbian parents.
59
Sexual Behavior—Sexual Orientation
• Current Research on Homosexuality:
– Genetics: twin studies suggest genetic
influence on sexual orientation.
– Prenatal hormones: affect fetal brain
development and sexual orientation.
– Note: Ultimate causes of sexual orientation
unknown, but genetics and biology are
believed to play dominant roles.
60
Sexual risk taking
• Sexually transmitted diseases (STDS) (Table 12-4
(page 449))- some curable, some not!
• Pregnancy
Most at risk:
• Young first experience, multiple partners, failure to
use contraceptives, inadequate sex information
(14%)
• Socioeconomically disadvantaged communities
• Substance use
• Antisocial behavior
• Association with deviant peers
61
• Peer group most influential
• 1/3 give into peer pressure
Remember, that intercourse, oral, and anal
sex can transmit STDS
• Contraceptives: why use/not useignorance
• Teenage mothers, who are often under
more stress than adult mothers, are
more likely to abuse their child.
62
Why Adolescents Fail to Use Birth
Control
1.due to moral or religious values and
beliefs
2.belief that sex should be spontaneous
and unplanned, therefore, no time for
birth control
3.ignorance about reproductive matters,
anatomy, pregnancy
63
4.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
belief in myths
won’t get pregnant the first time
cant get pregnant during the period
misunderstanding the rhythm method
pulling out always works
certain positions prevent pregnancy
belief that they have to be a certain age to
become pregnant
use of someone else’s birth control
place responsibility on the woman or man, but
fails to accept responsibility for self
belief that they are ready to be parents; possibly
promised to be married
64
5. rape/incest will not result in pregnancy
6. leave it up to God!
Condoms are the best protection!
Sex information: Tend to get from friends,
parents, sex education in school,
media.
Those who can discuss contraception with
parents have more positive attitudes
toward safe sex
65
Sexual Problems: Biological Factors in
Sexual Dysfunctions
• Sexual behavior = arousal of peripheral sex
organs, spinal cord, and brain. Factors that
modulate activity within these areas may impair
sexual function.
• Sexual arousal = activation within
parasympathetic nervous system,
which allows blood flow to sex
organs.
• Sexual orgasm = activation of the
sympathetic nervous system.
66
Sexual Problems: Psychological
Factors in Sexual Dysfunctions
• Negative gender role training (men aggressive and
independent, women passive and dependent)
• Double standard (male sexuality encouraged and
female’s discouraged)
• Unrealistic sexual scripts (socially dictated
“appropriate” behaviors limit sexual relations)
• Performance anxiety (fear of not meeting partner’s
sex expectations)
67
•
Sexual
Dysfunctions
Male Sexual Problems
– Erectile dysfunction (impotence--inability
to maintain an erection firm enough for
intercourse)
– Premature ejaculation (rapid ejaculation
beyond the man’s control)
68
Sexual Dysfunctions
• Female Sexual Problems
– Orgasmic dysfunction (inability or
difficulty in reaching orgasm)
– Vaginismus (painful contraction of the
vaginal muscles)
69
Sexual Dysfunctions
(Continued)
• Both Male and Female Sexual Problems
– Dyspareunia
(painful intercourse)
– Inhibited sexual desire
(apathetic or disinterested in sex)
– Sexual aversion (avoids sex due to
overwhelming fear or anxiety)
70
Sexual Problems--AIDS
• HIV Positive: being infected
by the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV)
• AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome): HIV destroys immune
system’s ability to fight disease
– Note: Although AIDS is transmitted only
through sexual contact or exposure to
infected bodily fluids, many people have
irrational fears of contagion.
71
Biological Sex & The Role of Sex Hormones
• Biological sex is determined by the
twenty-third pair of chromosomes, the
sex chromosomes.
• The member of the pair inherited from
the mother is an X chromosome.
• The X (female) or Y (male)
chromosome that comes from the father
determines the child’s sex.
72
• The Y chromosome triggers the
production of the principal male sex
hormone, testosterone, which in turn
triggers the development of external male
sex organs.
• A female embryo exposed to excess
testosterone is born with masculineappearing genitals. Also may prefer cars
over dolls.
• Until puberty, such females tend to act in
more aggressive, “tomboyish” ways than
is typical of most girls.
73
• The fact that people may treat such girls
more like boys illustrates how early
exposure to sex hormones affects us
both directly (in our biological
appearance) and indirectly—by
influencing social experiences that
shape us.
• Thus, nature and nurture work together.
74
The Role of Environment on the
Development of Gender Roles
• Although biology influences our gender,
gender is also socially constructed.
• Culture shapes our roles: a role is a cluster of
prescribed actions.
• For example, gender roles—our expectations
about the way men and women behave—
vary across cultures and time.
• For instance, in nomadic societies of foodgathering people, there is little division of
labor by sex.
75
• Society assigns each of us to the social
category of male and female. The result
is our gender identity, our sense of
being male or female.
• To varying degrees, we also become
gender-typed, acquiring a traditional
male or female role.
76
• Social learning theory assumes that
children learn gender-linked behaviors
by observing and imitating significant
others and by being rewarded and
punished.
• Gender schema theory assumes that
children learn from their cultures a
concept of what it means to be male or
female and adjust their behavior
accordingly.
77
Biopsychosocial Approach to
Development.
• Nature and nurture jointly form us.
• That is, we are products of natural
selection and heredity as well as
cultural, family, peer, and media
influences.
• But we are also open systems—that is,
creators as well as creatures of our
worlds.
• We respond to the world’s response to
us.
78
Figure 3.10 The biopsychosocial approach to development
79
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers