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Transcript
Endocrine System Collection of specialized cells, tissues and glands that produce and secrete hormones that control many body functions. Endocrine glands are ductless and secrete their hormones into interstitial fluid, lymph, and blood. • Exocrine glands secrete products into ducts • Hormones are bloodborne “information” units. – Come from endocrine glands – Circulate in the bloodstream – Act on specific cells in the body rev 12-12 Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 1 Endocrine glands are stimulated in one of three ways: 1. By nervous impulses 2. By hormones 3. By humoral stimulation (usually a chemical [glucose, calcium] )regulated by the hormone which activates or inhibits hormone release Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 2 Endocrine System Characteristics • Access to every cell because hormones circulate in the blood • Each hormone acts only on specific cells (target cells) because only the hormone’s target cells have the appropriate receptor to fit it; • Endocrine control slower than nervous system • Endocrine and nervous systems interact i.e. timing of growth and sexual maturation involves a complex sequence of changes in both endocrine and nerve signals; release of some hormones is dependent on input from sensory neurons. Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 3 Classification of Hormones Hormones are classified as “steroid” or “nonsteroid” based on their structure and mechanism of action. • Steroid hormones: – Lipid soluble, chemically derived from cholesterol – Enter target cells, bind to an intracellular receptor and activate genes that produce new proteins – Slower acting than nonsteroid hormones Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 4 Steroid hormones pass through the plasma membrane and act in a two step process. • Once inside the cell, steroid hormones bind to nuclear membrane receptors, producing an activated hormone-receptor complex. • The activated hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and activates mRNA to produce new proteins. Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 5 • Nonsteroid hormones: – Water soluble; derived from amino acid protein building blocks – Bind to receptors on target cell membranes and converts an inactive molecule within the cell into an active molecule. The activated molecule produces a chemical which is called a second messenger. – Activate existing enzymes so that even a small amount of hormone can produce a significant cellular change – Faster action than steroid hormones Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 6 Homeostasis is generally maintained by a negative feedback loop. In a negative feedback loop involving a hormone, the endocrine gland is the control center, the hormone represents the pathway between the control center and the effectors, the hormone’s target cells, tissues, or organs. • An endocrine system negative feedback loop is a stable, self-adjusting mechanism for maintaining homeostasis of the controlled variable. Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 7 Hypothalamus and the Posterior Pituitary Gland Hypothalamus – plays an important role in the regulation of homeostasis--monitors fluid and electrolyte balance, temperature, and carbohydrate metabolism – Is “the power behind the throne” -- the pituitary gland; is physically connected to the pituitary by a thin strip of tissue called the infidibulum – produces hormones which stimulate the release of most pituitary hormones • Has specialized neuroendocrine cells which function as nerve and endocrine cells; they generate nerve impulses which release hormones directly into the circulation; called the neuroendocrine reflex Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 8 – Hormones going to the posterior pituitary affect whole body; these hormones are transported on the hypothalamic neurons to the posterior pituitary; • are actually neurosecretions – Secretes tropic hormones to hypothalamic blood vessels which delivers them to the anterior pituitary – Interaction between the hypothalamus and the pituitary demonstrates the relationship between the endocrine and the nervous systems Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 9 • http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s4/chapter 02.html • Fig 2.1=neurosecretion • Fig 2.4, 2.5= ant pit secretion Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 10 Pituitary Gland (also called hypophysis) is located beneath the hypothalamus (and right behind the center of the eyes) in a bony cavity at base of brain; – Called the “master gland” because it secretes 8 different hormones which regulate many of the other endocrine glands; • Consists of 2 lobes: posterior and anterior − Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis): Neuroglial-like supporting cells and nerve fibers; − Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis) Glandular tissue Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 11 Posterior pituitary: – Connection to hypothalamus—may be considered an extension of the hypothalamus; some hypothalamic hormones are stored in posterior pituitary – Hormones: nonsteroidal; made by neuroendocrine cells • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): causes reabsorption of water in kidneys, regulates water balance in body • Oxytocin: causes uterine contractions during labor and milk ejection (milk let-down reflex) – The neurons that make the hormones transport the hormones down their axon to be released into the blood Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 12 Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland • Anterior pituitary: – Releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus travel to anterior pituitary through the pituitary portal system--a special blood supply that runs directly between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary. – This allows minute quantities of hypothalamic hormones to get to the anterior pituitary and not be diluted in the systemic circulation Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 13 Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland – Hormones: nonsteroidal: these hormones are made in the pituitary but released only upon hypothalamic stimulation • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates adrenal cortex – Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticosteroids (steroid hormones involved in stress related conditions and the metabolism of glucose) – TSH-Thyroid Stimulating Hormone • Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormone Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 14 Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland – Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): induces egg development and sperm development – Luteinizing hormone (LH): promotes ovulation and testosterone. These hormones are absent until ages 10-13 years and their production stimulates sexual maturation and development of the secondary sexual characteristics – Prolactin (PRL): stimulates the development of mammary gland cells and production of milk – Growth hormone (GH): widespread effects on growth Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 15 Pituitary Disorders Endocrine disorders tend to be chronic conditions of hypersecretion or hyposecretion • Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH): hypersecretion of ADH, excessive water retention so the body is out of balance— symptoms: headache, vomiting • Diabetes insipidus: hyposecretion of ADH, inability to save water appropriately; frequent urination Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 16 Pituitary Disorders • Gigantism: hypersecretion of growth hormone during childhood and adolescence; usual cause is a tumor of the anterior lobe of the pituitary. Person has relatively normal body proportions • Acromegaly: hypersecretion of growth hormone in adulthood; overgrowth of hands, feet and face • Both can cause headaches, poor vision, sinus congestion, congestive heart failure, impotence, kidney stones, weakness, arthritis and a shortened life span • Pituitary dwarfism: hyposecretion of growth hormone during childhood; immediate treatment with growth hormone during childhood Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 17 Pancreas: Endocrine Functions Pancreas is both an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland (secreting products into the digestive tract) Endocrine cells are located in the Islets of Langerhans; clusters of cells throughout the pancreas • Hormones: nonsteroidal: all work to regulate blood glucose (sugar) – Glucagon: made by alpha cells; raises blood sugar – Insulin: made by beta cells, lowers blood sugar – Somatostatin: made by delta cells, inhibits secretion of glucagon and insulin, regulates other hormones Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 18 Disorders of the Endocrine System Since the endocrine system is one of 2 primary systems for controlling body functions, any disruption can have a widespread effect Diabetes mellitus: DM—poor control of blood sugar inability to get glucose into cells. • glucose stays in the circulatory system and overwhelms the kidney’s ability to resorb the sugar excreted in the urine. • person also excretes a large amount of water Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 19 – Person becomes dehydrated and very thirsty, tired, has blurred vision, frequent infections, slow healing cuts, tingling in feet and hands. • When glucose can’t be metabolized correctly, the body will metabolize fat and proteins. This causes other problems—cardiovascular and neural diseases, renal failure, blindness, and potentially leg amputations. Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 20 • There are 2 types of diabetes: – Type I -caused by the failure of the pancreas to secrete enough insulin possibly caused by a virus that causes the immune system to attack the beta cells of the pancreas • Person is insulin dependent for the rest of his/her life Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 21 – Type II -thought to be insulin resistance— cells fail to respond adequately to insulin • Usually occurs in adults over 40 years • Treatment: lifestyle changes • Oral pills: drugs to stimulate the pancreas to secrete more insulin; drugs that increase the uptake of glucose by the liver and muscle cells • New: inhalable insulin Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 22 Adrenal Glands Adrenal glands are located just above the kidneys – Have an outer layer—cortex – an inner layer--medulla • Adrenal cortex: – Secretion: mediated through hypothalamuspituitary secretions – Hormones: steroidal Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 23 Adrenal Gland-Cortex – Glucocorticoids: cortisol assists glucagon in maintaining glucose levels during prolong fasting by promoting using fats and amino acids (liver can use amino acids to make glucose) AND • Suppresses inflammation after infection or injury • Also secreted when we are under emotional stress – Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone--primarily regulates minerals (sodium and potassium) • Also helps maintain body water balance Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 24 Adrenal Gland: Medulla • Adrenal medulla: neuroendocrine organ – when these are released into blood stream, function as hormones; when work as neurotransmitters, are nervous system transmitters – Secretion: sympathetic nervous system – Hormones: nonsteroidal: • Epinephrine and norepinephrine: enhance function of sympathetic nervous system (fightor-flight response) • Play role in metabolism and controlling blood pressure and heart activity Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 25 Adrenal glands: • Addison’s disease: failure of adrenal cortex to secrete sufficient cortisol and aldosterone • Lack of cortisol decreases blood sugar levels • Lack of aldosterone lowers blood sodium levels • Symptoms: fatigue, weakness, abdominal pain, weight loss • Treatment is medicine to replace hormones Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 26 • Cushing’s syndrome: excessive cortisol production causing – Excessive production of glucose and retention of salt and water. – Blood sugar rises and muscle mass decreases because protein is used to make sugar. – Some glucose is converted to fat but in specific areas of the body—the face, abdomen and back of the neck (a hump of fat can be seen by the neck) – Symptoms include weakness, fatigue, edema and high blood pressure Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 27 Thyroid Gland Located below larynx at the front of the trachea. • linked to the parathyroid gland. Both help regulate calcium balance. Thyroid gland helps control metabolism. • Secretion: mediated through hypothalamus– pituitary secretions • Steroidal hormones: – Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): both regulate production of ATP from glucose, affect metabolic rate Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 28 Thyroid Gland Iodine deficiency causes decrease in production of thyroid hormones • This causes goiter which is a result of the failure of the feedback inhibition of production of TRH and TSH. – Hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) which stimulates your pituitary to release TSH. – TSH stimulates the thyroid to make thyroid hormones. – TSH causes increase in size of thyroid gland as a result of the gland trying to produce more hormones which it can’t do because of lack of iodine • Calcitonin: decreases rate of bone resorption – lowers blood calcium levels by stimulating the intake of calcium by bone and increasing bone mass • Especially important for bone development Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 29 Disorders of the Endocrine System Thyroid: – Hyperthyroidism: overactive thyroid gland; hyperactivity, nervousness, agitation and weight loss • Graves’ disease: an autoimmune disease in which the person’s antibodies stimulate the thyroid to produce too much thyroxine. Accompanied by protruding eyes (called exopthalmos, caused by fluid accumulation behind the eyes) Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 30 Disorders of the Endocrine System Thyroid: – Hypothyroidism: underactive thyroid gland slows body growth, changes brain development, delays the onset of puberty • Children: cretinism—mental retardation and stunted growth • Adults: myxedema—swelling under the skin, lethargy, weight gain, low body temperature Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 31 Parathyroid Glands Located in the back of the thyroid gland • Hormone: parathyroid hormone (PTH), nonsteroidal: – Removes calcium and phosphate from bone – Increases absorption of calcium by the digestive tract – Increases retention by the kidneys of calcium and excretion of phosphate • PTH increases the calcium concentration in the blood and is secreted in response to lowered blood calcium levels Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 32 Reproductive Hormones The gonads (testes and ovaries) are responsible for the production of sperm and eggs and production of the sex hormones. The testes, located in the scrotum, produce androgens, the male sex hormone. • Hormone: in males: the androgen testosterone (steroidal): – Functions: • Regulates development and normal functioning of sperm, male reproductive organs, male sex drive • Development of male secondary sex characteristics and bone and muscle growth at puberty Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 33 Ovaries • Hormones (steroidal) and functions: – Estrogen: initiates development of secondary sex characteristics, regulates menstrual cycle – Progesterone: regulates menstrual cycle Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 34 Other Hormone Sources • Thymus: thymosin and thymopoietin, assist maturation of T lymphocytes (non-steroidal hormone) • Pineal gland: melatonin – Receives input from the eyes; melatonin secretion is higher in the dark; important in synchronizing the body’s rhythms to the daily light/dark cycle (Circadian cycle or rhythm) • Heart: atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) (nonsteroidal hormone); secreted by the atria to help regulate blood pressure by increasing the rate at which sodium and water are excreted in urine thus decreasing blood volume Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 35 Other Hormone Sources • Digestive system: gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin; they stimulate activities of the stomach, pancreas and gallbladder • Kidney: Erythropoietin stimulates RBC production – Renin stimulates aldosterone secretion and constricts blood vessels Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 36 Other Chemical Messengers Function in ways similar to hormones but aren’t secreted directly into the bloodstream. – Actions of these are primarily local – Actions short because they are either quickly destroyed or reabsorbed by the cells that produced them • Histamine: inflammation – Mast cells release into local interstitial fluid in response to tissue injury or allergen presence • Histamine increases local mucus secretion, dilates blood vessels and increases the leakiness of capillaries Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 37 • Prostaglandins: local control of blood flow; – Can constrict or dilate blood vessels depending on what is needed; contribute to the inflammatory response; involved in blood clotting at injury site • Nitric oxide: multiple functions – Regulates local blood flow, regulating smooth muscle contraction in the digestive tract; fights bacteria, interferes with clotting mechanisms • Growth factors: local acting to modify development of specific tissues; influence when a cell will divide Endocrine-BIO 102 HANDOUT 38