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Saladin Chapter 17
The Endocrine System
Comparison of Nervous & Endocrine Systems
• Neuroendocrine System
Nervous system controls through nerve
impulses conducted by axons.
Responses occur within milliseconds.
Relatively local, specific effects.
Stops when stimulus stops, adapts
quickly.
Comparison of Nervous & Endocrine Systems
Endocrine system controls through
hormones transported in the blood.
May have widespread general effects.
Responses occur after seconds to days &
are more prolonged. Adapt slowly
Endocrine Glands - General
– No ducts – secretion into fluid around cells
diffuses into capillaries.
– Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal
are examples.
– Many organs have partial endocrine function –
hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes,
kidneys, stomach, small intestine, skin, heart.
Endocrine Glands - General
– Hormones – long distance chemical messengers
that travel in blood or lymph throughout body.
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Glands
• Anatomy
Hypothalamus floor and walls of third ventricle.
Interfaces with ANS
Pituitary - Anterior [adenohypophysis]
75% of gland – ectodermal origin
Regulated by “releasing” hormones from
hypothalamus – no neural connection –
joined through hypophyseal portal system.
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Glands
5 kinds of gland cells produce trophic hormones
(affect other endocrine tissues).
Somatotrophs (hGH)
Thyrotrophs (TSH)
Gonadotrophs (FSH, LH)
Lactotrophs (Prolactin)
Corticotrophs (ACTH, MSH)
Hypothalamus & Pituitary Glands
Posterior [neurohypophysis] – mass of
neuroglia and nerve fibers.
25%, ectodermal origin; stores and
releases hormones – doesn’t
make them
Ex. Oxytocin and ADH from
hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
• In diencephalon – integrates nervous system
& hormones & controls ANS.
• Synthesizes at least 9 hormones- 7 regulate
the pituitary.
• Regulates growth and development,
metabolism, homeostasis.
Hypothalamus
• Controls secretion of other hormones by other
glands.
• Intimately in contact with pituitary by
hypophyseal portal system [primary capillary
plexus of infundibulum connected by
hypophyseal portal veins with secondary
capillary plexus in anterior pituitary.]
Hypothalamus Hormones
• A. Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
Target = anterior pituitary
Effect = stimulates release of growth hormone
(GH)
Regulation = Plasma levels of glucose, fatty
acids, and amino acids; sleep, ANS and
other hormones.
Hypothalamus Hormones
• B. Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
Target = anterior pituitary
Effect = inhibit release of GH
Regulation = Plasma levels of glucose, fatty acids
and aa's
Hypothalamus Hormones
• C. Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH)
Target = anterior pituitary gland
Effect = stimulate release of Thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH)
Regulation = plasma levels of TSH and
glucose; metabolic rate
Hypothalamus Hormones
• D. Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
Target = anterior pituitary gland
Effect = stim. release of
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Regulation = blood glucose levels, stress,
interleukin -1
Hypothalamus Hormones
• E. Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
Target = anterior pituitary gland
Effect = stimulate release of Follicle
Stimulating hormone (FSH) &Luteinizing
hormone (LH)
Hypothalamus Hormones
Regulation:
Females - plasma estrogen &
progesterone levels;
Males – plasma testosterone levels
Hypothalamus Hormones
• F. Prolactin Releasing Hormone (PRH)
Target = anterior pituitary gland
Effect = stim. release of prolactin (PRL)
Regulation = suckling
Hypothalamus Hormones
• G. Prolactin inhibiting Hormone (PIH)
Target = anterior pituitary
Effect = inhibit PRL release
Regulation = suckling, plasma estrogen &
progesterone levels
Hypothalamus Hormones
** 2 hormones are produced in the hypothalamus,
& stored in special cells in the posterior pituitary.
• H. Oxytocin (OT) – from paraventricular nucleus
Target = smooth muscle in uterus and breast
Effect = contraction of muscle (labor, milk
ejection, sexual arousal – “cuddle” hormone.)
Regulation = hormonal changes during
pregnancy, suckling
Hypothalamus Hormones
• I. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)[= vasopressin]
Target = kidney
Effect = decrease sweat and urine output;
constrict arterioles & increase blood
pressure
Regulation = blood osmotic pressure,
stress, drugs [alcohol inhibits ADH].
Hypothalamus &Pituitary Hormones
Pituitary Hormones
• A. Human Growth Hormone (hGH) [Somatotropin]
Target = general [bones & skeletal
muscles.]
Effect = ↑ production of insulin-like growth
factors. ↑ cell growth & division; ↑protein
synthesis & fat catabolism, ↓glucose catabolism
Regulation = GHRH, GHIH; also affected by
stress, nutrition & sleep patterns.
Pituitary Hormones
• B. Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Target = thyroid gland
Effect = stim. secretion/release of T3 & T4
Regulation = TRH
Pituitary Hormones
• C. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Target = adrenal cortex
Effect = stimulate glucocorticoids
Regulation = CRH. Also affected by stress,
hypoglycemia.
Pituitary Hormones
• D. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Target = gonads (ovary, testis)
Effect:
Stimulates production of gametes
(male & female)
Pituitary Hormones
Stimulates production of estrogen
(female)
Regulation = GnRH, inhibin, estrogen (F) &
testosterone (M)
Pituitary Hormones
• E. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Target = gonads
Effect:
(F) stimulates ovulation, formation of
corpus luteum and prod. of Estrogen
& Progesterone.
Pituitary Hormones
(M) stimulates prod. of testosterone,
LH also called interstitial cell
stimulating hormone (ICSH) in male
Regulation = GnRH
Pituitary Hormones
• F. Prolactin (PRL) or Lactogenic Hormone
Target = breast
Effect = milk production
Regulation = PRH, PIH, estrogen.
Pituitary Hormones
• G. Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
Target = melanocytes
Effect = increases production of melanin;
CNS neurotransmitter
Regulation = MRH, MIH
Pituitary Hormones
Produced from pro-opiomelantocortin
POMC, that also can yield 2 natural
opiates, an enkephalin & endorphin.
Pituitary Hormones
• Control of Pituitary Secretion
Timing & amount of secretion are
regulated by hypothalamus, brain centers
& feedback from target organs.
Hypothalamus & Cerebral Control –
releasing & inhibiting hormones.
Brain monitors conditions &
stimulates their release.
Pituitary Hormones
Neuroendocrine reflexes affect
posterior lobe of the pituitary - in
response to neurosensation [e.g.,
suckling].
Feedback from targets – negative
feedback inhibition for the most part
[note oxytocin response is positive].
Pineal Gland
• Pineal Gland – roof of third ventricle – capsule
of pia mater. Decreases in size with age.
Cells = pinealocytes
Function – not clear
Produces melatonin [at night], & serotonin
[by day] – may affect circadianrhythms,
timing of puberty, & mood [SAD & PMS]
Thymus
• Thymus – over heart
Functions in immunity, decreases in size
with age.
Produces thymopoietin & thymosin
needed for T cell maturation.
Thyroid
• General
Lateral lobes connected by isthmus
anterior to trachea
Follicles – made of follicular cells produce
T3 & T4 upon TSH stimulation
Thyroid
Parafollicular cells – produce calcitonin
Hormones are stored in large quantities –
only gland that does this - in colloid in
follicle cavity.
Thyroid Hormones
• T3, T4 [main]
Target – general
Effect – regulate O2 use, basal metabolic
rate, growth & development - T3 more
potent than T4
Regulation – TSH from pituitary, TRH from
hypothalamus
Thyroid Hormones
Calcitonin
Target – bone
Effect – inhibit osteoclasts, decrease Ca2+
release into blood, increase Ca2+ uptake
into bone
Regulation – Ca2+ levels
Parathyroids
• Posterior surface of lobes of thyroid – 2/ side
• Hormone –
↑ number & activity of osteoclasts.
Most important hormone in regulation of
Ca2+ balance.
Parathyroids
↑ bone resorption, which ↑blood Ca2+ &
HPO42Kidney changes: ↑ rate of removal of Ca2+
& Mg2+ from urine & return to blood
Net effect – ↑circulating Ca2+ & ↓ HPO42-
Parathyroids
Calcitonin is PTH antagonist
Also promotes formation of calcitriol from
vitamin D, which increases rate of Ca2+,
Mg2+, & HPO42- from GI
Control – Negative feedback via blood Ca2+
levels
Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal Glands – 1 on top of each kidney – 2
regions – cortex & medulla
Adrenal Medulla
Inner part of adrenal – not essential to life.
Chromafin cells –sympathetic neurons
specialized for hormone secretion.
Adrenal Glands
Produce catecholamines – epinephrine
[80%] & norepinephrine – ANS
sympathetic system [glycogenolysis,
gluconeogenesis, glucose-sparing, etc.]
Link to cortex – under stress,
catecholamine secretion stimulates
corticosterone secretion.
Adrenal Glands
Cortex – 80-90%
Derived from mesoderm
Produce over 2 dozen steroid hormones
essential to life from cholesterol.
Adrenal Cortex
3 zones:
Zona glomerulosa – outer zone
Produces mineralcorticoids – affect Na+ & K+
Aldosterone – 95%
• Acts on kidney tubules
• Causes resorption of Na+ which also increases
resorption of Cl-, HCO3- & H2O
Adrenal Cortex
• Promotes secretion of K+, which ↑ K+ excretion
• Control – 4 mechanisms
1. Renin-angiotensin pathway
»Decrease in blood volume causes
decrease in blood pressure.
»This stimulates renin secretion by the
kidney, which causes Angiotensinogen to
be converted to angiotensin I in the liver.
Adrenal Cortex
»This promotes conversion to angiotensin
II in the lung, which causes aldosterone
secretion which ↑blood volume & ↑in
blood pressure.
»A second target for angiotensin II is
arteriole walls – they constrict which
further increases blood pressure.
Adrenal Cortex
2. Plasma Na+ & K+ concentrations – ↑
inhibits, ↓ stimulates.
3. ACTH – in stress, causes ↑aldosterone.
4. ANP – inhibits rennin-angiotensin
system.
Adrenal Cortex
Zona fasciculata –> glucocorticoids regulate
metabolism & resist stress
Cortisol [95%], corticosterone, cortisone,
Effects – stimulate:
Protein breakdown/construction
Gluconeogensis
Adrenal Cortex
Lipolysis – breakdown of lipids
Stress resistance – ↑ glucose & Bp
Anti-inflammatory – ↓mast cells which
reduces release of histamine; also ↓vessel
permeability which reduces swelling, but
also slows healing
Adrenal Cortex
Depression of immunity – helps with organ
transplants
Control – negative feedback – blood levels of
glucocorticoids ↓  ↑ in CRH, which
↑release of ACTH, which goes to cortex &
↑glucocorticoid secretion.
Adrenal Cortex
Zona reticularis – produces androgens & some
estrogens
This is not significant in males since the
testes make more
In females – affect libido, increase axial &
pubic hair,
Affect pre-pubertal growth spurt
Pancreas
• Endocrine & exocrine – posterior & slightly
inferior to stomach
Exocrine function – 98% – production of
digestive enzymes by acinar cells
Endocrine function – Islets of Langerhans;
Pancreas
3 main types of cells
α–- produce glucagon
β – produce insulin
Δ – produce somatostatin
Pancreatic Hormones
• Insulin
Target – general
Effect – ↓ blood glucose & ↑diffusion of
glucose into cells [not kidney, liver &
brain],↑glycogenesis, ↑ uptake of amino
acids & peptide formation (↓ gluconeogenesis), ↑ glucose change to fat & ↑
cellular respiration. ↓glycogenolysis.
Pancreatic Hormones
Regulation –blood levels of glucose, amino
acids & fatty a’s.
Pancreatic Hormones
• Glucagon
Target – liver
Effect: ↑blood glucose levels by
stimulating gluconeogenesis &
glycogenolysis.
Regulation – blood glucose levels, ANS &
Insulin
Pancreatic Hormones
• Somatostatin
Target – digestive tract and pancreas
Released in response to elevated glucose,
fatty acids & aa’s.
Inhibits secretion of glucagon & insulin
Ovaries
• Ovaries
Estrogens [granulose cells of follicle &
corpus luteum] & progesterone
Regulate female reproductive cycle
Maintain pregnancy
Prepare mammarys for lactation
Ovaries
Develop and maintain secondary
sexual characteristics
Inhibin – suppresses FSH
Testes
• Testes
Testosterone – androgen [by interstitial
cells]
Regulates production of sperm, sex drive
Testes
Regulates development of male secondary
characteristics
Inhibin [by Sertoli cells]
Heart
• Heart – ANP
Reduces blood volume, pressure &
sodium concentration.
Inhibits aldosterone
Skin
• Skin – Cholecalciferol
Inactive vitamin D formed by UV radiation
 liver  kidney for full activation
[calcitriol].
Essential for calcium absorption from
intestines.
Others
• Liver – associated with production [often
elsewhere] of 5 hormones – erythropoietin,
angiotensin II, calcitriol, insulin-like growth
factors I, Hepcidin [promotes uptake of iron]
• Kidney – Erythropoietin [Stimulates rbc
production]. Calcitriol. Renin – reninangiotensin system
Others
• GI – Enteroendocrine cells
Regulate digestive functions.
Paracrines – local hormones.
• Placenta - Produces estrogen, progesterone,
hCG.
Others
• Adipose –
Leptin – secreted after glucose uptake –
suppresses appetite.
Resistin – an insulin antagonist.
Hormones & Their Actions
• Chemistry
Steroids
– Made from cholesterol nucleus with variable
attachments.
– Glands – gonads and adrenal
– EX. Aldosterone, cortisol, vitamin D, androgens.
Hormones & Their Actions
Peptides and Proteins ( 3 – 200 amino acids)
– Synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Some have CBH = glycoproteins - EX. – TSH,
oxytocin, ADH, etc.
Hormones & Their Actions
Monamines - Amino acid – based
– Catecholamines – epinephrine, norepinephrine,
dopamine from Tyrosine. Histamine from
histidine. Serontonin, & melatonin from
tryptophan.
– Thyroxine [thyroid hormones] - 2 iodinated
tyrosine molecules coupled together. T3, T4
Hormones & Their Actions
• Hormone synthesis
Steroids – from cholesterol – vary in functional
group attachments.
Peptides – transcription, translation, etc. 
inactive preprohormone  RER 
prohormone  Golgi  secretion
Hormones & Their Actions
Monamines – thyroxine example
Made from thyroglobulin – glycoprotein
containing tyrosine – made by follicular
cells.
Hormones & Their Actions
– Add 3 or 4 I’s
– Iodination process – 2I-  I2
– I2 + Tyr  either 1 iodo or 2 iodo Tyr
– T1 +T2  T3
– T2 + T2  T4
Released from thyroglobulin by lysosomes
Transport – both carried in blood by thyroxinbinding globulin made in liver
Hormones & Their Actions
• Hormone Transport
Monamines & peptides are mostly
hydrophilic, easily transported in blood.
Steroids & thyroid hormone are hydrophobic,
moved by“transport” proteins – from liver.
Transport proteins also protect from
degradation & elimination.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
• Hormone Target Cell Specificity
Receptors – proteins or glycoproteins,
on target cells – other cells not affected.
Constantly replenished
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
Response to hormone concentration –
Saturation – all are occupied. ↑ hormone
will have no effect.
Control – “if a hormone is prevented from
interacting with its receptors, it cannot
perform its normal functions.”
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
Variable response – different cells may have
receptors for the same hormone, but produce
different responses to it.
EX. Insulin – In fat cells, it stimulates
uptake of glucose & fat synthesis,
in the liver it stimulates amino acid
transport and glycogen synthesis, in
the pancreas it inhibits glucagon-related
reactions.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
• Steroids and thyroid hormone
Receptors are inside the target cell
Action: Diffuse from blood through
plasma membrane into cell.
Bind to & activate receptors.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
Activated receptor binds to DNA.
DNA is transcribed, & new mRNA is
produced that directs synthesis of
proteins, usually enzymes.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
• Thyroid hormone:
In cell all is converted to T3.
T3 binds to mitochondria to ↑ cellular
respiration; binds to ribosomes & ↑
rate of protein synthesis; binds to DNA
receptors ↑ transcription.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
• Peptides & catecholamines - Second
Messenger Systems
Action [Ex. Glucagon]
Hormone diffuses from blood to target cell
& binds to membrane receptor.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
This activates “G” proteins attached to the
inside of the membrane, which activates
adenylate cyclase (AC) also on the inside
AC converts ATP to cAMP in cytosol.
cAMP activates protein kinases (they add
phosphates to proteins), either activating
or inactivating the proteins.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
Control:
Phosphodiesterase inactivates cAMP
Increasing or decreasing cAMP.
Increases with ADH, TSH, ACTH, glucagon,
epinephrine etc.
Decreases occur with GHIH, ANP.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
• Enzyme amplification – one hormone
molecule may activate many G’s, each of
which may then activate many AC’s, each of
which may produce many cAMPs, etc.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
• Modulation of sensitivity
Down-regulation – number of receptors
↓when concentrations of hormone are
high – tissues become less sensitive.
Up-regulation – number of receptors ↑
when concentration of hormone ↓– tissue
becomes more sensitive.
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
• Hormone interactions:
Synergistic [works with another hormone
for an effect],
Permissive [enhances response to another
hormone secreted later], antagonistic
[works against another hormone]
Hormone Receptors & Modes of Action
• Half-Life, Onset, and Duration of Activity
Half-life – measures persistence of a
hormone in circulation – usually a fraction
of a minute to 30 minutes.
General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS]
• Response to prolonged, extreme or unusual
stress
• Stressor – and disturbance – temperature,
toxins, poisons, heavy bleeding, emotional
upheaval
General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS]
• GAS – 3 stages
1 – Alarm Reaction = Fight or flight
Hypothalamus stimulates ANS &
adrenal medulla epinephrine/
norepinephrine;
Short lived
Consumes glycogen stores
General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS]
2 – Resistance Stage [long-term]
Provide alternative fuels when
glycogen has been depleted.
Dominated by cortisol.
General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS]
Mediated by hypothalamus : CRH –
stimulates ACTH production, which
stimulates glucocorticoid [cortisol].
Fat breakdown, inhibits protein synthesis,
immune response, etc.
If stress removed – body returns to
normal.
General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS]
3 – Exhaustion – if stress continues past
ability of Resistance Reaction to function
 rapid decline & death [heart or kidney
failure or overwhelming infection].
Stress
• Stress and Disease – stress can temporarily
inhibit components of the immune system
and produce gastritis, ulcerative colitis,
irritable bowel syndrome, migraines, anxiety
and depression.
Paracrines
• Eicosanoids – 20 C FA chains – derived from
arachidonic acid in phospholipids in cell
membranes. – Important considerations in
pharmacology.
Paracrines
Examples
Leukotrienes – mediate allergic &
inflammatory reactions
Prostacyclin – blood vessel walls –
inhibits clotting and vasoconstriction
Paracrines
Thromboxanes – platelets – stimulate
vasoconstriction & clotting when
platelet is activated.
Prostaglandins
Anti-inflammatories
• Anti-inflammatories
Steroidal – inhibit release of arachodonic
acid & thus formation of eicosanoids.
Non-steroidal – stop action of enzyme
needed for prostaglandin synthesis
Endocrine Disorders
• Homeostatic Imbalances – hypothalamus/
pituitary
Hypersecretion of prolactin – may be due
to adenohypophyseal tumorsinappropriate lactation, loss of menses,
infertility.
Endocrine Disorders
Diabetes Insipidus – deficiency of secretion
of ADH – Huge losses of urine, no sugar.
GH - Gigantism [hyper] & dwarfism [hypo]
Endocrine Disorders
• Homeostatic Imbalances – Thyroid
Hypothyroidism – myxedema – may be from
thyroid defect or failed TSH or TRH release.
Low metabolic rate, chills, thick dry skin,
puffy eyes, lethargy.
Endocrine Disorders
If due to lack of I – can develop goiter.
Infantile version = cretinism – can be
prevented with thyroid hormone
replacement therapy, can’t be reversed.
Endocrine Disorders
Hyperthyroidism – Grave’s disease.
May be autoimmune disease.
Elevated metabolic rate, weight loss, rapid
irregular heart beat, exophthalmos.
Endocrine Disorders
• Homeostatic Imbalances – Adrenal Cortex
Cushing’s Disease
Overproduction of glucocorticoids
Buffalo hump on back, edema, hypertension.
Due to steroid therapy or pituitary tumor.
Endocrine Disorders
Addison’s Disease – hyposecretion.
Fluid loss and hypotension.
Endocrine Disorders
• Homeostatic Imbalances – Pancreas
Diabetes Mellitus –hyposecretion or
hypoactivity of insulin.
Elevates blood sugar levels, glycosuria,
weight loss.
Ketoacidosis [from lipemia].
Endocrine Disorders
3 signs – polydipsia [excessive thirst],
polyphagia [excessive hunger], polyuria
[huge urine output].
Also hyperglycemia, glycosuria, ketonuria.
Endocrine Disorders
• Type I – insulin-dependent [juvenile].
Involves depletion of beta cells.
Requires insulin supplementation.
Endocrine Disorders
• Type II – non-insulin dependent [insulin levels
are normal or elevated].
Problem is insulin resistance.
Adult-onset [40+].
Associated with obesity.
Endocrine Disorders
Fat catabolism ↑ free FA’s  ↑ ketone
bodies  osmotic dieresis, flushing of Na
& K, acidosis  diabetic coma.
Endocrine Disorders
• Long-term degenerative effects on vascular
and nervous system – compromised
circulation  gangrene.
• Nerve damage  impotence, loss of
sensation, etc.
Diabetic retinopathy
Diabetic gangrene
Endocrine Disorders
• Hypoglycemia –
excess insulin, low
blood sugar, anxiety,
tremors, weakness.