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Chapter 2
Consumer Research
Consumer Research Paradigms
Quantitative
Research
Qualitative
Research
©2000 Prentice Hall
Quantitative Research
• Descriptive in nature.
• Enables marketers to “predict” consumer
behavior.
• Research methods include experiments, survey
techniques, and observation.
• Findings are descriptive, empirical and
generalizable.
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Positivism
A consumer behavior
research approach that
regards the consumer
behavior discipline as an
applied marketing science.
Its main focus is on
consumer decision making.
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Qualitative Research
• Consists of depth interviews, focus groups,
metaphor analysis, collage research, and
projective techniques.
• Administered by highly trained intervieweranalysts.
• Findings tend to be subjective.
• Findings not usually generalizable
• Small sample sizes.
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Interpretivism
A postmodernist approach to
the study of consumer
behavior that focuses on the
act of consuming rather than
on the act of buying.
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Interpretivism
• Concerned with act of consumption
rather than in the act of buying.
• Uses qualitative research.
• Use depth interviews.
• Often used to help make business
decisions.
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Depth
Interviews
A lengthy and relatively
unstructured interview
designed to uncover a
consumer’s underlying
attitudes and/or motivations.
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Table 2.1 Comparisons between
Positivism and Interpretivism
PURPOSE
Positivism
Prediction of consumer
actions
Interpretivism
Understanding consumption
practices
METHODOLOGY
Positivism
Quantitative
Interpretivism
Quantitative
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Table 2.1 continued
ASSUMPTIONS
Positivism
Interpretivism
• Rationality; consumers make
decisions after weighing alternatives
• The causes and effects of behavior
can be identified and isolate
• Individuals are problem solvers who
engage in information processing
• A single reality exists
• Events can be objectively measured
• Causes of behavior can be identified,
by manipulating causes, the marketer
can influence behavior
• Findings can be generalized to larger
populations
• There is no single, objective truth
• Reality is subjective
• Cause and effect cannot be isolated
• Each consumption experience is
unique
• Researcher/respondent interactions
affect research findings
• Findings are often not generalized to
larger populations
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Combining Qualitative and
Quantitative Research Findings
• The research paradigms are complementary in
nature.
• Produce a richer and more robust profile of
consumer behavior than either research
approach used alone.
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The Consumer Research Process
• The six major steps in the consumer research
process are:
–
–
–
–
–
–
defining the objectives of the research
collecting and evaluating secondary data
designing a primary research study
collecting primary data
analyzing the data
preparing a report on the findings
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Figure 2.2 The Consumer Research Process
Develop Objectives
Collect Secondary Data
Design Qualitative Research
• Method
• Screener questionnaire
• Discussion guide
Design Quantitative Research
• Method
• Sample design
• Data collection instrument
Conduct Research
(Using highly trained
interviewers)
Collect Primary Data
(Usually by field staff)
Analyze Data
(Subjective)
Prepare Report
Exploratory
Study
Analyze Data
(Objective)
Prepare report
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Developing Research Objectives
• Defining purposes and objectives helps
ensure an appropriate research design.
• A statement of objectives helps to define the
type and level of information needed.
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Secondary
Data
Data that has been collected
for reasons other than the
specific research project at
hand.
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Collecting Secondary Data
• Secondary information is any data originally
generated for some purpose other than the
present research objectives.
• Provides clues and direction for the design of
primary research.
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Primary
Research
Original research undertaken
by individual researchers or
organizations to meet
specific objectives.
Collected information is
called Primary Data.
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Table 2.2 Major Sources of Secondary Data
Internal
Sources
Internal sources include company profit-loss statements, balance
sheets, sales figures, sales-call reports, invoices, inventory records, and
prior research reports.
Statistical Abstract of the U.S., updated annually, provides summary data
Government on demographic, economic, social, and other aspects of the American
Publications economy and society.
Country and City Data Book, updated every three years, presents statistical
information for counties, cities, and other geographical units on
populations, education, employment, aggregate and median income,
housing, bank deposits, retail sales, etc.
U.S. Industrial Outlook provides projections of industrial activity by
industry and includes data on production, sales, shipments,employment etc
Marketing Information Guide provides a monthly annotated bibliography
of marketing information.
Other government publications include the Annual Survey of
Manufacturers; Business Statistics; Census of Manufacturers; Census of
Population; Census f Retail Trade, Wholesale Trade, and Selected Service
Industries; Census of Transportation; Federal Reserve Bulletin; Monthly
Labor Review; Survey of Current Business; and Vital Statistics Report.
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Table 2.2 continued
Periodicals
and Books
Business Periodicals Index, a monthly, lists business articles appearing
in a wide variety of business publications.
Standard and Poor’s Industry Surveys provides updated statistics and
analyses of industries.
Moody’s Manuals provides financial data and names of executives in
major companies.
Encyclopedia of Associations provides information on every major
trade and professional association in the United States.
Marketing journals include the Journal of Marketing, Journal of
Marketing Research, and Journal of Consumer Research.
Useful trade magazines include Advertising Age, Chain Store Age,
Progressive Grocer, Sales and Marketing Management, and Store.
Useful general business magazines include Business Week, Fortune,
Forbes, and Harvard Business Review.
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Table 2.2 continued
A.C. Nielsen Company provides data on products and brands sold through
Commercial retail outlets (Retail Index Services), data on television audiences (Media
Research Services), magazine circulation data (Neodata Services, Inc.), etc.
Data
Market Research Corporation of America provides data on weekly family
purchases of consumer products (National Consumer Panel); data on home
food consumption (National Menu Census); and data on 6,000 retail, drug,
and discount retailers in various geographical areas (Metro Trade Audits).
Selling Areas-Marketing, Inc., provides reports on warehouse withdrawals
to food stores in selected market areas (SAMI reports).
Simmons Market Research Bureau provides annual reports covering
television markets, sporting goods, proprietary drugs, etc., giving
demographic data by sex, income, age, and brand preferences (selective
markets and media reaching them).
Burke Marketing Services, Inc., provides TV campaign testing in controlled
marketing labs, marketing modeling, retail store audits, physiological
measures of advertising stimuli, pre- and post-TV copy testing, and
customer survey research.
Markets Facts, Inc., provides consumer mil panel, market test-store audit
services, shopping mall facilities, WATS telephone interviewing, and ad
hoc survey research.
Other commercial research houses selling data to subscribers include the
Audit Bureau of Circulation, Audits and Surveys, Dun and Bradstreet,
Opinion Research, Roper-Starch, and Arbitron.
Source: Adopted from Philip Kotler, Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and Control 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 1997).
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Designing Primary Research
• Quantitative studies more likely for collecting
descriptive information.
• Qualitative studies may be used to get new
ideas.
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Quantitative Research Designs
Method
Sample Design
Data Collection
Instrument
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Data Collection Methods
Observation
Experimentation
Surveys
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Observational Research
• Helps marketers gain an in-depth understanding of
the relationship between people and products by
watching them buying and using products.
• Helps researchers gain a better understanding of
what the product symbolizes.
• Widely used by interpretivist researchers.
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Experimentation
• Can be used to test the relative sales appeal of
many types of variables.
• Only one variable is manipulated at a time,
keeping other elements constant.
• Can be conducted in laboratories or in the
field.
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Surveys
Personal Interview
Mail
Telephone
Online
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Table 2.3 Comparative Advantages of Mail,
Telephone, and Personal Interview Surveys
Cost
Speed
Response
rate
Geographic
flexibility
Interviewer
bias
Interviewer
supervision
Quality of
response
PERSONAL
ON-LINE
INTERVIEW
High
Low
Slow
Fast
SelfHigh
selection
MAIL
TELEPHONE
Low
Slow
Moderate
Immediate
Low
Moderate
Excellent
Good
Difficult
Excellent
N/A
Moderate
Problematic
N/A
N/A
Easy
Difficult
N/A
Limited
Limited
Excellent
Excellent
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Data Collection Instruments
Questionnaires
Personal
Inventories
Attitude
Scales
Discussion
Guides
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Validity
The degree to which a
measurement instrument
accurately reflects what it is
designed to measure.
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Reliability
The degree to which a
measurement instrument is
consistent in what it
measures.
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Questionnaires
• Used primarily for quantitative research.
• Can be sent in the mail, or administered by
interviewers in person or by telephone.
• Can be disguised or undisguised as to its true
purpose.
• Questions can be open-ended or closed-ended.
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Personal Inventories
• Presents a series of statements to which
respondents indicate their degree of agreement
or disagreement.
• An inventory presents a list of statements,
while a questionnaire asks a series of
questions.
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Attitude Scales
• The three most frequently used scales are:
– Likert scales: easy for researchers to prepare
and interpret, and simple for consumers to
answer.
– Semantic differential scales: relatively easy to
construct and administer.
– Rank-order scales: subjects rank items in order
of preference in terms of some criteria.
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Figure 2.3 Example of a Likert Scale
Please place the number that best indicates how strongly you agree or disagree
with each of the following statements about shopping on-line in the space to
the left of the statement.
1 = Agree Strongly
2 = Agree
3 = Neither Agree or Disagree
4 = Disagree
5 = Disagree Strongly
_____ a. It is fun to shop online.
_____ b. Products often cost more on-line than they are worth.
_____ c. It is a good way to find out about new products.
_____ d. I’m afraid to give out my credit card number on-line.
_____ e. I can shop whenever I want--even at 2 o’clock in the
morning.
_____ f. Some Web sites really encourage you to browse.
_____ g. It’s easy to compare different makes and models one-line.
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Poor
Figure 2.4 Semantic Differential Profiles of
Three Pay-Per-Movie Services
5
Clarity of
Picture
1
Ease of
Access
2
Digital
Cable
DIVX
Number of
Titles
DVD
Availability
3
Cost
Excellent
Neutral
4
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Figure 2.5 Rank-Order Scales
A. Please rank the following e-mail providers in terms of ease of access
by placing a 1 in front of the service you think is best, a 2 alongside
the second best, and continuing until you have ranked all six service
providers.
_____ America Online
_____ Netscape
_____ Microsoft Explorer
_____ AT&T Worldnet
_____ Juno
_____ Erols
B. Rank the following computer manufacturers in terms of hotline help
by placing a 1 next to the one who provides the best telephone help a
2 next to the second best, until you have ranked all six.
_____ IBM
_____ Dell
_____ Compaq
_____Hewlett Packard
_____ Gateway
_____ NEC
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Qualitative Data Collection Methods
Depth
Interviews
Focus
Groups
Projective
Techniques
Metaphor
Analysis
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Depth Interviews
• A lengthy non structured interview between a
respondent and a highly trained interviewer.
• Interviewer minimizes his or her own
participation after establishing the general
subject matter.
• Can provide marketers with valuable ideas
about product design and provide insights for
positioning or repositioning the product.
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Focus Group
A qualitative research
method in which about eight
to ten persons participate in
an unstructured group
interview about a product or
service concept.
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Focus Groups
• Consists of 8 to 10 respondents who meet with a
moderator-analyst for a focused group discussion.
• Respondents encouraged to discuss their interests,
attitudes, reactions, motives, lifestyles, feelings
about the product or product category, usage
experience, etc.
• Respondents recruited on the basis of consumer
profiles, based on specifications defined by
marketing management.
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Figure 2.6 Selected Portions of a
Discussion Guide
1. Why did you decide to use your current cellular company?
(Probe)
2. How long have you used you current cellular company? (Probe)
3. Have you ever switched services? When? What caused the
change? (Probe)
4. What do you think of the overall quality of your current service?
(Probe)
5. What are the important criteria in electing a cellular service?
(Probe)
Examples of Probe questions:
a. Tell me more about that...
b. Share your thinking on this…
c. Does anyone see it differently...
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Projective
Techniques
Research procedures
designed to identify
consumers’ subconscious
feelings and motivations.
These tests often require
consumers to interpret
ambiguous stimuli such as
incomplete sentences,
cartoons, or inkblots.
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Projective Techniques
• Consist of a variety of disguised “tests” that
contain ambiguous stimuli.
• Sometimes administered as part of a focus
group, but usually used with depth interviews.
• The theory is that respondents’ inner feelings
influence how they perceive stimuli.
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Metaphor Analysis
• Based on belief that metaphors are the most basic
method of thought and communication.
• Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET)
combines collage research and metaphor analysis
to bring to the surface the mental models and the
major themes or constructs that drive consumer
thinking and behavior.
• Consumer values also play an important role in
understanding consumer behavior.
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Sampling Plan Decisions
Whom to
survey?
How many?
How to
select them?
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Table 2.4 Probability and Nonprobability
Sampling Designs
PROBABILITY SAMPLES
Simple random
sample
Every member of the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected.
Systematic random
sample
A member of the population is selected at random
and then every “nth” person is selected.
Stratified random
sample
The population is divided into mutually exclusive
groups (such as age groups), and random samples
are drawn from each group.
Cluster (area)
sample
The population is divided into mutually exclusive
groups (such as blocks), and the researcher draws a
sample of the groups to interview.
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Table 2.4 continued
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLES
Convenience
sample
Judgment sample
Quota sample
The researcher selects the most accessible
population members from whom to obtain
information (e.g., students in a classroom)
The researcher uses his or her judgment to select
population members who are good sources for
accurate information (e.g., experts in the relevant
field of study).
The researcher interviews a prescribed number of
people in each of several categories (e.g., 50 men
and 5 women).
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Analysis
• Qualitative Research: Moderator or
test administrator usually analyzes
responses.
• Quantitative Research: Researcher
supervises the analysis.
– Open-ended responses are coded and
quantified
– Responses are tabulated and analyzed
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Conducting A Research Study
• Researchers often adapt the research
process to the special needs of the study.
• Together with the marketing manager,
the researcher specifies the parameters of
the population to be studied.
• A qualitative study might be undertaken
first to gather information about the
target population's attitudes and concerns
about certain items.
• Then a quantitative study may be
conducted to confirm and attach “hard”
numbers to the findings.
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