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THE SWORD OF DAMOCLES AND
THE BIOSPHERE
John Cairns, Jr.
University Distinguished Professor of Environmental Biology Emeritus
Department of Biological Sciences
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, U.S.A.
January 2011
Dionysius (II) was a fourth century B.C. tyrant of Syracuse, a city in Magna
Graecia, the Greek area of southern Italy. To all appearances Dionysius was very
rich and comfortable, with all the luxuries money could buy, tasteful clothing and
jewelry, and delectable food. He even had court flatterers (adsentatores) to inflate
his ego. One of the ingratiators was the court sycophant, Damocles. Damocles used
to make comments to the king about his wealth and luxurious life. One day when
Damocles complimented the tyrant on his abundance and power, Dionysius turned
to Damocles and said, “If you think I’m so lucky, how would you like to try out my
life?”
Damocles readily agreed, and so Dionysius ordered everything to be
prepared for Damocles to experience what life as Dionysius was like. Damocles was
enjoying himself immensely . . . until he noticed a sharp sword hovering over his
head, that was suspended from the ceiling by a horse hair. This, the tyrant
explained to Damocles, was what life as ruler was really like.
Damocles, alarmed, quickly revised his idea of what made up the good life,
and asked to be excused. He then eagerly returned to his poor, but safer life
(http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/ciceroworkslatin/f/DamoclesSword.htm).
 The Roman orator Cicero used this parable to describe a sense of foreboding, which
could result in a defining moment in a person’s life.
THE SWORD OF DAMOCLES HANGING BY A
THREAD OVER HUMANKIND IS DAMAGE TO THE
PRESENT BIOSPHERE, WHICH IS BOTH A LIFE SUPPORT
SYSTEM AND THE SOURCE OF RESOURCES THAT FUEL
THE HUMAN ECONOMY.
 Although I have been an environmental biologist since 1948, I had no sense of
foreboding until 1988 when I co-chaired the conference “On Global Warming:
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming.”
 Since 1988, my sense of foreboding about the deleterious consequences of
climate change and biospheric damage for humankind has increased markedly.
 I have no foreboding about the future of life on Earth, at least until the sun
begins to die.
LIFE ON EARTH BEGAN APPROXIMATELY 3.5
BILLION YEARS AGO. SINCE THEN, FIVE GREAT
EXTINCTIONS OF SPECIES HAS OCCURRED. FROM THE
SURVIVING SPECIES, EVOLUTION HAS RESTORED
BIODIVERSITY OVER SUBSTANIAL SPANS OF TIME.
 After each extinction, the new array of species has always been markedly
different from past arrays.
 The sixth biosphere (the present one) is now experiencing a marked reduction in
species caused by human-related activities.
 Since species are the basic components of biospheres, neither structure nor
function of the next biosphere can be predicted.
BY NURTURING THE PRESENT BIOSPHERE,
ITS LIFE COULD PROBABLY BE PROLONGED.
 Prolonging the present biosphere is in humankind’s enlightened self interest
since this biosphere has enabled Homo sapiens to evolve and, at times, flourish.
 Since the present biosphere is the only one that humans have experienced, they
tend to forget that other biospheres not favorable to human survival have
existed.
 Once a tipping point has been passed, changes are irreversible.
 If humankind wishes to maintain the present, favorable conditions, it should
change practices that alter the biosphere NOW!
THE SIGNS OF MARKEDLY INCREASED RISK TO
HUMANS AND THE BIOSPHERE ABOUND, BUT THEY
DIFFER CONSIDERABLY FROM ONE AREA TO
ANOTHER, AND PEOPLE TEND TO JUDGE GLOBAL
CHANGE BY LOCAL EVENTS (e.g., unseasonable
snowfall in an area means global warming is a hoax).
 “The earth continues to get warmer, yet it’s feeling a lot colder outside. Over the
past few weeks, subzero temperatures in Poland claimed 66 lives; snow arrived in
Seattle well before the winter solstice, . . . All of this cold was met with perfect
comic timing by the release of World Meteorological Organization report showing
that 2010 will probably be among the three warmest years on record, and 2001
through 2010 the warmest decade on record. . . . the overall warming of the
atmosphere is actually creating cold-weather extremes.”1
CLIMATE CHANGES ARE JEOPARDIZING FOOD
SUPPLIES IN A VARIETY OF WAYS INCLUDING
IRRIGATION WATER SHORTAGES, CHANGED RAINFALL
PATTERNS, DISEASE, ETC.
 The population is growing exponentially but the food supply is declining  for
example, “a devastating fungus, a wheat “rust,” is spreading out of Africa, a grave
threat to the food plant that covers more of the planet’s surface than any other.”2
 About 1,000 tons of water is needed to produce 1 ton of grain. Water shortages are
a major problems, especially as ground water aquifers are depleted.
 In third-world countries, food does not always reach consumers because of lack of
transport, refrigeration, or preservation.
 In the United States, food (corn) is turned into subsidized fuel (ethanol), which
increases the price of corn for poor people.
IF BANKS ARE “TOO BIG TO FAIL,” WHY
ISN’T THE BIOSPHERE CONSIDERED “TOO BIG
TO FAIL”?
 The human economy is a subset of the Biosphere, which provides the resources
that fuel it.
 Banks can block financial transactions of ‘whistle blowers,”3 but failure of the
Biosphere can drive Homo sapiens to extinction. Which is the larger threat?
 The Biosphere has “whistle blowers”  Earth’s scientists who often pay dearly
for their disclosure of harm  who alert the public to actions that harm
biospheric health.
 The financial system has many well funded lobbyists and “think tanks”  the
Biosphere has few, poorly funded ones.
MANY METAPHORS ILLUSTRATE WAYS THAT
THE BLAMELESS MESSENGER IS PUNISHED FOR
BRINGING BAD NEWS.
 Scientists use the objective, scientific method to gather evidence  evidence
that offends non-scientists is “bad” news, regardless of the quality.
 The scientific method, the peer-review process, and the opportunity to challenge
published evidence/analysis are superb quality control measures.
 “The fact is that the critics  who are few in number but aggressive in their
attacks  are deploying tactics that they have honed for more than 25 years . . .
to stop action on climate change, with special interests like Exxon Mobil footing
the bill . . .”4
THE PRESENT SITUATION IS NOT HOPELESS AND
HUMANKIND NEEDS HOPE! THE FIRST STEP IS TO
RESTORE EARTH’S ENERGY BALANCE SO THAT IT
RADIATES AS MUCH TO SPACE AS IT ABSORBS FROM
THE SUN.5
 Carbon dioxide should be reduced by 35 to 40 ppm to increase Earth’s heat radiation to
space.
 Eventually this reduction might return the pH of Earth’s oceans from mildly acidic to
mildly alkaline.
 Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions are not likely to be reduced because of
present political or economic beliefs.
 The good news is that the United States is in a good position in terms of scientific
status and productivity. The bad news is that US teenagers rank 29th in science
worldwide.6 Perhaps the cuts in US educational funding are not a good idea since both
citizens and students must understand the importance of Earth’s energy balance.
THE BIOSPHERE IS IN PERIL, WHICH DOES NOT
BODE WELL FOR
HOMO SAPIENS.
 Life on Earth is probably not in danger, but the continued existence of humankind
may be. Many of the activities of humankind damage the Biosphere. If some
organisms survive the present great extinction, evolution will restore
biodiversity.
 However, Homo sapiens is taking needless risks by assuming all biospheres will
be as nurturing as the present one.
 Humans must be willing to alter their lifestyles and their economy to preserve
the present Biosphere.
Acknowledgments. I am indebted to Darla Donald for transcribing the handwritten
draft and for editorial assistance in preparation of the Power Point presentation.
References
1Cohen,
J. 2010. Bundle up, it’s global warming. New York Times 25Dec
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/26/opinion/26cohen.html.
2Hanley, C. J. 2010. The problem with wheat: resurgent disease, climate change
threaten one of the world’s most important crops. Associated Press 26Dec
http://carbon-based-ghg.blogspot.com/2010/12/resurgent-disease-climatechange.html.
3Editorial. 2010. Banks and Wikileaks. New York Times 26Dec
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/26/opinion/26sun3.html.
4Sachs, J. 2010. The phony attack on climate science. Economist’s View 19Feb
http://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2010/02/the-phony-attackon-climate-science.html.
5Hansen, J. 2009. Storms of My Grandchildren. Bloomsbury, New York, p. 63.
6Paulson, A. 2007. New report ranks U.S. teens 29th in science worldwide. Christian
Science Monitor 5Dec http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1205/p02s01-usgn.html.