Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
When do Organisms need Transport Systems? We need TRANSPORT when 2 cells are far from each other materials needed to be moved from one place to another huge sum of substances to be moved Why do Organisms need Transport Systems? ensure a continual supply of nutrients, oxygen and other useful materials for metabolism and removal of toxic waste products produced by metabolism small animal can undergo this by diffusion but large animal cannot, they need a transport system Blood Components blood = plasma + blood cells (straw-coloured fluid) (corpuscles) blood cells include red blood cell (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes ) and blood platelets where red blood cells are the most numerous blood cells and give blood the red colour Separation of blood Blood components can be separated by centrifuge A Centrifuge for separation Plasma Blood cells Composition of Mammalian Blood Whole Blood Plasma (55% by volume) 90 % Water Blood Cell (45% by volume) White Blood Cell 10% Dissolved Substances Phagocytes Red Blood Cell Platelets Lymphocytes Blood Plasma Plasma is approximately 55% by volume and contains WATER (as a solvent) SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES hormones protein mineral salts gases dissolved food substances metabolic wastes Blood Cells Platelets White Blood Cell Red Blood Cell Red Blood Cells (red corpuscles, erythrocytes) form within bone marrow short life span with about 120 days old red blood cells are destroyed in liver & spleen they have no nuclei when mature - it increases the space to carry haemoglobin they have biconcave disc shape - which provides large surface area to diffuse oxygen possess of haemoglobin – haemoglobin is an iron-containing compound and its presence is responsible for the colour of red blood cell – enable red blood cell to carry oxygen from lungs to all parts of the body Red blood cells Transport of Oxygen haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen when the concentration of oxygen is high In lung Oxygen + haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin In tissue change of haemoglobin to oxyhaemoglobin is accompanied by the colour change from purplish red to bright red Transport of Carbon Dioxide CO2 (from tissue) CO2 + H2O CO2 (in bloodstream) enzyme + H2CO3 carbonic acid HCO3 (In red blood cell) (in plasma) H + HCO3 hydrogencarbonate ion To Test a Sample of Blood Plasma (chicken/pig/ox) for glucose supernatant Fehling’s solutions A and B centrifuge chicken blood boiling water Name the supernatant obtained after centrifugation. Ans: It is plasma. supernatant Fehling’s solutions A and B centrifuge chicken blood boiling water What does the precipitate in the centrifuge tube consist of ? Ans: The precipitate contains blood cells. supernatant Fehling’s solutions A and B centrifuge chicken blood boiling water What happens to the supernatant when it is heated with Fehling’s solutions A and B ? Ans: The supernatant forms an orange precipitate. White Blood Cells (white corpuscles, leucocytes) larger than red blood cells and irregular in shape White blood cells prominent nucleus no haemoglobin kill germs, defend against disease Red blood cells two main kinds of white blood cells: phagocytes and lymphocytes White Blood Cells - Phagocytes made in bone marrow but different from the place where red blood cells are made irregularly shaped nucleus move like Amoeba can squeeze out through the walls of capillaries into the surrounding tissues engulf dead cells or pathogens White Blood Cells - Lymphocytes made in bone marrow, then migrate to lymph nodes large nucleus which nearly fills up the cells produce antibodies to attack germs by reaction with their surfaces and often cause them to clump together produce antitoxins to neutralize the toxins secreted by germs Platelets (thrombocytes) platelets are not cells fragments budded off from specialized cells in bone marrow smaller than other blood cells life-span is about 5 to 9 days agent for initializing blood clotting Blood Clotting when platelets are damaged in an injury, it releases a chemical substance which starts a chain of reactions results: fibrinogen fibrin fibrin acts like a net, trapping blood cells and plugging the wound so bleeding stops serum are yellowish fluid which is plasma without fibrinogen clot dries up and harden to form a scab when new skin formed under the scab, it loosens and comes off The clotting of blood (plasma protein) Functions of Blood It acts as a transport medium for oxygen, carbon dioxide, food, urea, hormones, antibodies and heat It contains white blood cells and platelets for body defense against infection It helps in maintaining body temperature constant In emergencies an injured person may die... How can we save his life? Blood Transfusion Any criteria for Blood Transfusion? Donor’s blood and recipient’s blood must be compatible, otherwise, agglutination will occur which will block the blood vessels Blood Grouping a person’s blood group determined by the protein present on the surface of red blood cells called antigens there are two different antigens called antigen A and antigen B. For a person in group A contains antigen A in human, there are mainly four different blood groups called A, B, AB and O in plasma, there may contain antibodies known as anti-A and anti-B. They will react with certain red blood cells which contain the wrong antigen The ABO Blood Group Type B Type AB Antigen A Antigen B Antigens A and B Antibody A Neither antibody A and B Red blood cell Type A Antibody B Type O Neither antigen A or B Antibodies A and B Human Blood Groups Blood Antigen Antibodies Recipient Group (RBC) (Plasma) A A Anti-B A & AB B B Anti-A B & AB AB A&B NO AB only O NO Both anti-A & anti-B ALL Agglutination Reaction A Type A blood of donor Type B antibody in type A blood of recipient No agglutination B Type A blood of donor Type A antibody in type B blood of recipient Agglutination Human Blood Groups Donor A Recipient B Agglutination AB = universal recipient O = universal donor Blood Vessels there are three main kinds of vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries arteries carry blood away from the heart while veins carry blood towards the heart Blood Circulation Vein Artery Heart Venule Capillary Arteriole Blood Vessels Artery Vein Artery wall of arteries are thick and supported with muscles and elastic fibres Artery Vein • Blood pressure is much lower in vein as blood has flowed slowly through the capillaries before entering the vein • vein has larger lumen and thinner walls than artery Vein valves present to prevent backflow of blood and ensure that it flows towards the heart Valve closed blood can’t flow back Valve open blood can flow return of blood to heart is aided by contraction of body muscles as they squeeze the blood along the vein Blood squeezed towards heart Muscle contracted Valves closed Prevent back-flow Differences between Arteries and Veins Arteries Veins Direction of carry blood away return blood to the blood flow from the heart heart thick wall made up thin wall made up of muscles and of muscles and elastic fibres elastic fibres Differences between Arteries and Veins Arteries blood flows with pulse Veins blood flows steadily with no pulse Differences between Arteries and Veins Lumen Arteries Veins small large Differences between Arteries and Veins Arteries Location deep inside the body Veins close to the surface Demonstration of Venous Flow in the Fore Arm A B X vein elbow joint C D S R Y finger Y squeezing finger X pressing blood down on R towards S finger Y removed finger X still pressing down on R both fingers are removed What structure in the vein is indicated by the appearance of the bulge at S shown in diagram C ? Ans: The valve in the vein. A B X vein elbow joint C D S R Y finger Y squeezing finger X pressing blood down on R towards S finger Y removed finger X still pressing down on R both fingers are removed What is the purpose of tying the arm with a piece of rubber tubing ? Ans: This makes the vein more conspicuous. A B X vein elbow joint C D S R Y finger Y squeezing finger X pressing blood down on R towards S finger Y removed finger X still pressing down on R both fingers are removed With reference to the steps shown, explain why the part of the vein between R and S has disappeared ? Ans: Since In step On thethere other B, finger are hand, valves Y squeezes finger at Xpoint isthe still S,vein blood pressing towards is down point S. Blood on prevented point in R which from this segment flowing prevents back is blood therefore … flowing pushed into R. along … A B X vein elbow joint C D S R Y finger Y squeezing finger X pressing blood down on R towards S finger Y removed finger X still pressing down on R both fingers are removed Why is it necessary to take the rubber tubing away as soon as the demonstration has been completed ? Ans: It is because we need to restore the normal blood flow for the arm as soon as possible. Capillaries It is the smallest blood vessels It is the site of exchange (by diffusion) Thin wall (one cell) Nutrients Diffusion O2 CO2 Waste Adaptation of Capillary It has many branches to increase the surface area for diffusion of materials like glucose, amino acids, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, mineral salts and metabolic wastes between blood and tissue cells It has thin wall (only one-cell thick) to decrease the diffusion distance for exchange of materials between blood and tissue cells Exchange of Materials It is carried out by diffusion through the whole length of capillaries (B.P. > O.P.) (O.P. > B.P.) substance pressed out to the tissue cells O.P.= osmotic pressure B.P.= blood pressure O.P. substances diffused into the blood capillary O.P. B.P. arteriole end B.P. blood flow venule end Heart located inside the thorax, between the lungs enclosed by the pericardium the wall of heart is made of cardiac muscle and it works days and nights throughout one’s life oxygen and nutrients are supplied to heart through coronary arteries while wastes are carried away by coronary veins Structure of Heart the heart is divided into right and left halves internally by a central wall or partition called septum heart is divided into four chambers with the two chambers at the top of heart are auricles and the two down at the bottom called ventricles Heart-Auricles (Atrium) walls are relatively thin right auricles receives deoxygenated blood from the venae cavae (superior vena cava and inferior vena cava) which collect blood from all parts of the body except lungs left auricle receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins which come from the lungs Direction of Blood Flow from Auricles to Ventricles Right Superior vena cava Right auricle (atrium) Inferior vena cava Right ventricle Left Pulmonary veins Left auricle (atrium) Left ventricle Heart-Ventricles have thicker and more muscular walls than the auricles right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery left ventricles pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta which takes the blood around the body right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, which lie very close to the heart but left ventricle needs to pump blood all around the body left ventricle has a thicker wall of muscles Heart-Valves prevent blood from flowing backwards, ensuring blood flows through the heart in only one direction there are three types of valve present in heart, they are : Tricuspid valve, Bicuspid valve and Semilunar valves Tricuspid valve -valve on the right hand side lying between the right auricle and right ventricle has three parts Bicuspid valve - it situates at the left hand side lying between the left auricle and left ventricle is made up of two parts REMARKS: chordae tendineae (heart tendon) are attached between the two valves above and the muscular walls of the ventricles to prevent the one-way valves from being turned inside out Semilunar valves -situated at the entrances of the aorta and the pulmonary artery. They are pocketshaped valves to prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles Blood Flow from Ventricles to Other parts of the Body To left lung To right lung Pulmonary arteries Venae cavae Semilunar valves Tricuspid Septum valve Ventricles To head Aorta To body Pulmonary veins Articles Bicuspid valve Heart tendon - prevent valves to turn inside out Cardiac muscle Examination of a Pig’s Heart pulmonary artery right auricle right ventricle first cut pulmonary artery second cut aorta right auricle left auricle left ventricle third cut left auricle left auricle open heart tendon Why do the ventricles have thicker walls than the auricles ? Ans: It is because ventricles need to pump blood to other parts of the body. pulmonary artery right auricle right ventricle first cut pulmonary artery second cut aorta right auricle left auricle left ventricle third cut left auricle left auricle open heart tendon Which ventricle has a thicker wall than the other ? What is the reason for this difference ? Ans: Left ventricle. As it needs to pump blood all around the body but right ventricle pumps blood to lungs which lie close to heart. pulmonary artery right auricle right ventricle first cut pulmonary artery second cut aorta right auricle left auricle left ventricle third cut left auricle left auricle open heart tendon What are the structures separating the auricles and ventricles ? Ans: It is septum. pulmonary artery right auricle right ventricle first cut pulmonary artery second cut aorta right auricle left auricle left ventricle third cut left auricle left auricle open heart tendon Why is it necessary to have the chordae tendineae ? Ans: It is used to prevent the one-way valves from being turned inside out. pulmonary artery right auricle right ventricle first cut pulmonary artery second cut aorta right auricle left auricle left ventricle third cut left auricle left auricle open heart tendon What is the function of the coronary artery ? Ans: It is used to supply nutrients and oxygen to the heart. Heart Attack cardiac muscle differs from other kinds of muscle as it is able to contract repeatedly without getting tired coronary arteries are branches from aorta which supply nutrients and oxygen to the cardiac muscle coronary heart disease is the slow down of the flow of blood through coronary arteries which is caused by the deposition of a fatty substance called cholesterol on the inside wall of these arteries, making them narrower and rougher heart attack is a result of blocking coronary arteries so cardiac muscle cannot obtain oxygen or nutrients from blood and die as a result, the person may die excess animal fat in the diet, smoking, high blood pressure, lack of exercise and stress may lead to heart attacks Heart Beat as cardiac muscle in its walls contracts and relaxes, heart beats systole is the time when cardiac muscle contracts and the heart becomes smaller which squeezes blood out diastole is the time when cardiac muscle relaxes and the heart becomes larger which allow blood to flow into the auricles and ventricles it consists of auricular systole, ventricular systole and diastole Auricular systole - it is about 0.1 second in duration - contraction of the two auricles, squeezing blood into the ventricles Ventricular systole - it is about 0.3 second in duration - contraction of the two ventricles - tricuspid and bicuspid valves are forced to close by the pressure of the blood, producing the first heart sound “lub” - semilunar valves are forced open by the pressure of the blood, so blood is forced out of the ventricles into the arteries Diastole - it is about 0.4 second in duration - all four chambers relax - blood pressure in the ventricles decreases and this causes the closure of the semilunar valves, producing the second heart sound “dup” Cardiac cycle is the duration between one contraction of the auricles and the next and it is about 0.8 seconds pulmonary circulation lungs Blood Circulation in Man heart In one complete circulation, blood flows through heart twice but flow through the body once only systemic circulation consists of two circuits: pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation body Pulmonary Circulation Venae cavae Tissue Deoxygenated blood Left ventricle Right auricle Left auricle Right ventricle Pulmonary vein Lung Oxygenated blood Systemic Circulation contraction of left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood out of the heart via aorta to all parts of the body (except lungs) exchange of materials occurs when blood flows through the capillaries and become deoxygenated finally, blood is collected by the venae cavae which drains them into the right auricle of the heart Lymphatic System Tissue fluid - fluid formed when the high blood pressure at the arterial end of a capillary forces fluid out through it but red blood cells, platelets and plasma proteins stay back in the bloodstream - used to bath the cells and keeps them in the right condition and provides a medium for exchange of materials between blood and cells Lymph - excess tissue fluid which cannot be returned to the capillaries by osmosis but drained into lymph capillaries - lymph capillaries are colourless vessels present in the tissues and it will join up to form large lymph vessels - lymph vessels carry lymph to subclavian veins which empty into the heart through the superior vena cava - lymphatic vessels contain valves, which help to keep the lymph flowing in the right direction - contraction of skeletal muscles also aids the flow of lymph Lymph nodes (lymph glands) - situated on the way from the tissue to the subclavian veins Lymph nodes - made up of tiny spaces like a sponge and lymph is filtered through these spaces before it can continue to return to the bloodstream - contain large numbers of white blood cells to destroy bacteria and toxin in lymph Functions of Lymphatic System – to return excess tissue fluid to blood system – as a medium for material exchange between capillaries and tissue cells - fats are absorbed by lacteals which join the lymphatic system so it transport absorbed fats - the lymph node filters the lymph, it also produce lymphocytes which make antibodies Functions of Transport System in Angiosperms carries water and mineral salts from the roots to the mesophyll cells of the leaves for photosynthesis by xylem carries foods made in the leaves by photosynthesis to other cells of the plant by phloem xylem and phloem are together called vascular bundles Arrangement of Conducting Tissues in Angiosperms in root - close to central position in which xylem is found in the centre in a star-like arrangement and phloem lies between the radial arms of the xylem - to resist the strong pulling force from the wind blowing the shoot in stem - close to the epidermis where the conducting tissues are arranged in a ring near the outside edge, with phloem lying outside and xylem inside - to resist the strong bending force produced by wind in leaves - vascular bundles are often called veins in which xylem lies above the phloem Xylem consists of long tubular vessels each vessel is made up of many dead cells which are hollow and joined end to end the end walls of the cells have disappeared and so a long and open tube is formed xylem vessels run from the root, through the stem and finally branch out into every leaf of the plant xylem vessels contain no cytoplasm or nuclei to prevent xylem from collapsing, they have thick cell walls made of cellulose and strengthened by rings of a woody substance called lignin Phloem made up of tube cells called sieve tubes which are living cells joined end to end by perforated horizontal walls called sieve plate the perforations allow dissolved substances to flow through them so food made in the leaves can be carried to other parts of the plant sieve tubes contain cytoplasm but no nuclei and they do not have lignin in their cell walls each sieve tube has a companion cell next to it but this companion cell does not have nucleus and contain many other organelles Comparison between Sieve Tubes and Vessels Sieve Tubes living cells smaller diameter walls relatively thin, flexible, composed of cellulose Vessels dead cells larger diameter walls relatively thick, hard, strengthened by rings of lignin Comparison between Sieve Tubes and Vessels Sieve Tubes the lumens of mature cells are filled with cytoplasm end walls of adjacent sieve tubes from sieve plates Vessels the lumens of mature cells are empty end walls of adjacent vessels cells break down Upward Transportation of Water and Mineral Salts • root pressure • capillarity • by transpiration pull Transpiration Pull most of the water rising up in the xylem of the stem is pulled up by this during transpiration, water is continually removed from the top of xylem vessels to supply cells in the leaves so pressure at the top of xylem reduces and water flows up Transport of Organic Nutrients translocation is the process of transporting the manufactured carbohydrates in photosynthesis via phloem from the leaves to other parts of the plant ~ End ~