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Syntax!
Basic Sentence Structure:
Learn the hardest punctuation rules
by learning to identify phrases and clauses
and
Learn the four basic sentence structures
This Keynote presentation should be
worked through with (1) your sentence
structure packet, (2) your online exercises,
and (3) the Interactive Grammar Summary (“IGS”),
For full instructions, visit writeo.us’s AP syntax page.
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What is a noun?
A naming word. It names a person, place, thing, or
abstract concept.
What are the nouns in the following sentence?
Patriots fought the British for liberty.
Patriots fought the British for liberty.
Circle all of the nouns on page 95, sentences 1 - 4.
What is a pronoun?
A word that substitutes for a noun.
What are the pronouns in the following sentence?
They fought them for it.
They fought them for it.
Circle all of the pronouns on page 95, sentences 5
& 6.
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What is a subject? How is it different from a
noun?
A subject is the noun, pronoun, or phrase that
does the action in a sentence.
Which of the nouns in the following sentence is
the subject?
Patriots fought the British for liberty.
Patriots fought the British for liberty.
Double-circle the subjects on page 95, sentences
1 - 6.
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What is a verb?
A verb describes the action in a sentence and
forms the main part of the sentence’s predicate.
What are the verbs in the following sentences?
He leaves tomorrow on the first train.
He leaves tomorrow on the first train.
The quick, brown fox jumped over the lazy dogs.
The quick, brown fox jumped over the lazy dogs.
Put rectangles around the verbs on page 95,
sentences 1 - 6.
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All of the hard punctuation rules are easy if you
know how to spot phrases and clauses. Words in
sentences clump together in phrases and clauses.
What is a phrase?
A phrase is a group of words that acts like a single
part of speech.
Can you find the phrase in this sentence:
The lion is the king of the forest.
The lion is the king of the forest.
“of the forest” acts like an adjective modifying
what?
The lion is the king of the forest.
The most common phrase is the prepositional
phrase.
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A prepositional phrase often
tells when or where
Example:
She hit the ball over the fence in the bottom of the
tenth inning.
She hit the ball over the fence in the bottom of the
tenth inning.
Which prepositional phrase tells where someone
did something? Which tells when?
Some common prepositions: at, before, for, from,
in, of, to, under, with.
Draw a diamond around the preposition in each
prepositional phrase on page 95 in sentences 1 4.
Underline the prepositional phrases on page 95 in
sentences 1 through 4.
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Where is/are the prepositional phrase/phrases in
the following sentence?
At the beginning of the jump a person feels a rush
of emotions.
At the beginning of the jump a person feels a rush
of emotions.
Where would you put a comma?
At the beginning of the jump, a person feels a rush
of emotions.
Rule #1: Use a comma after two prepositional
phrases that start a sentence.
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What is the rule for the following examples,
though?
At the time, I couldn’t decide on whom to marry.
About him I have nothing to say.
Rule #2: Use a comma after one prepositional
phrase that starts a sentence only if you hear a
natural pause after it.
Underline the prepositional phrases on page 95,
sentences 7 - 10.
Circle the prepositions in each prepositional
phrase in sentences 7 - 10.
Punctuate sentences 7 - 10.
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What is a phrase?
A phrase is a group of words that acts like a single
part of speech.
What is a clause?
A clause is a group of related words that contains
a subject and a verb.
What is the subject and verb in this clause?
We ate cheese and crackers for dinner.
We ate cheese and crackers for dinner.
What is the subject and verb in each of these two
clauses?
We ate shrimp until the waiter came with the
pizza.
We ate shrimp until the waiter came with the
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pizza.
On page 95 in sentences #11 - #16, circle the
subject and put a rectangle around the verb in
each clause. Then draw a slash mark between
the clauses.
Some clauses can stand alone as sentences, and
some cannot. What clause in this sentence could
stand alone as its own sentence?
We ate shrimp until the waiter came with the
pizza.
We ate shrimp / until the waiter came with the
pizza.
Right: We ate shrimp
A clause that can stand alone as a sentence is
called an independent clause. Example: We ate
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shrimp.
An independent clause that stands alone is a
simple sentence.
A simple sentence.
One independent
clause.
Example: She
wrote several
books.
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A subordinate clause starts with a subordinator.
Without a subordinator, the subordinate clause
would be an independent clause. For instance:
As she spoke, I could see tears streaming down
his face.
What is the subordinate clause? What is the
subordinator?
As she spoke, I could see tears streaming down
his face.
Most subordinators are subordinating
conjunctions:
Subordinatin
g
after
conjunctions
Other
subordinator that
as
which
becaus befor
e
e
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who
until
while
That, which, and who are
pronouns, so they are
On page 95, sentences #11 through #16, draw a
second line under every subordinate clause. Then
draw a heart around the subordinator of each
subordinate clause.
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Where should a comma be in the following
sentence?
When I got there the basement was already
flooded.
When I got there the basement was already
flooded.
Rule #3: left-branch subordinate clauses always
end with a comma. For instance:
When I got there, the basement was already
flooded.
Where should a comma be if you put the
subordinate clause after the independent clause?
For instance:
The basement was already flooded when I got
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A sentence with a subordinate clause and an
independent clause is called a complex sentence.
A complex sentence.
One independent
clause and one
subordinate clause.
A simple sentence.
One independent
clause.
Example: She
wrote several
books.
Example: She wrote
several books as she
recovered.
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Subordinate clauses can start with that or which. If
you wouldn’t say the sentence without the clause,
use that. If the information inside the clause is just
extra, use which. For example:
The ring that my grandmother gave me still fits.
The ring, which my grandmother gave me, still fits.
The ring that my grandmother gave me still fits.
The ring, which my grandmother gave me, still fits.
Rule #5: Use commas to set off clauses that start
with which (a nonessential subordinate clause).
Rule #6: Don’t use commas to set off clauses that
start with that (an essential subordinate clause).
On page 95, sentences #17 - #24, underline the
subordinate clause in each sentence. Then, circle
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the subject and verb in each
subordinate clause.
On page 95, sentences #17 - #24, put commas
where they should go based on the previous rules
#5 and #6.
Subordinate clauses aren’t the only thing that take
commas when they’re nonessential and don’t take
them when they’re essential. Appositives do, too.
An appositive is a word or phrase that follows a
noun or pronoun for the purpose of explaining it.
Appositives can be essential appositives or
nonessential appositives.
Examples:
Mary, a tall girl, won second place at the history
fair. [“A tall girl” is a nonessential appositive.]
My cousin Frank sells real
18 estate in Fresno.
Mary, a tall girl, won second place at the history
fair.
“A tall girl” is a nonessential appositive because
the information isn’t essential to the sentence’s
existence. “A tall girl” is added information.
My cousin Frank sells real estate in Fresno.
“Frank” is an essential appositive because “Frank”
identifies the cousin in question.
Rule #7: Nonessential appositives are set off by
commas.
Rule #8: Essential appositives are not set off by
commas.
On page 96, sentences 25 through 28, underline
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the appositives and put commas
where
There are two kinds of phrases we need to know about
besides the prepositioal phrase. One is the participial
phrase.
A participial phrase starts with a participle.
There are two kinds of participles. Past participles end
in –ed (buried, for example), and present participles
end in –ing (lurking, for example).
There’s a participial phrase in this cumulative sentence:
Buried in the sand for centuries, the wooden ship felt
like driftwood beneath the vacationers’ feet.
Buried in the sand for centuries, the wooden ship felt
like driftwood beneath the vacationers’ feet.
Lurking just beneath the hot sand, the wooden ship felt
like driftwood beneath the vacationers’ feet.
Lurking just beneath the hot20 sand, the wooden ship felt
The other kind of phrase is the absolute phrase.
It’s almost a sentence. In other words, it’s a
participial phrase with a noun in front of it:
Its skeleton buried in the sand for centuries, the
wooden ship felt like driftwood beneath the
vacationers’ feet.
Rule #9: When a sentence starts with a participial
phrase, put a comma after it.
Examples:
Using her head as a kind of battering ram, my sister
broke into my room.
Urged on by their fans, the Nats extended their
current winning streak to three games.
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Rule #10: Set off an absolute
phrase with commas.
Rule #10: Set off an absolute phrase with commas.
Example:
The job nearly completed, the men put down their
shovels and shared a pitcher of lemonade.
After they won, the players ran off in five directions,
the crowd nearly suffocating them in their frenzy.
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A clause can have a compound subject. Example:
Raoul and Paul play ball. How many clauses
does that sentence have?
Raoul and Paul play ball.
A clause can have a compound verb, too.
Raoul and Paul play ball and eat Skittles.
Raoul and Paul play ball and eat Skittles.
How many clauses does the above sentence
have?
Raoul plays ball, and Paul eats Skittles.
How many clauses does the above sentence
have?
On page 96, sentences #29 - #33, circle the
subjects and put rectangles around the verbs.
Underline the compound 23subjects once and
Definition of compound subject: two or more
subjects in a single clause.
Example of compound subject:
Raoul and Paul play ball.
Definition of compound verb: two or more verbs in
a single clause.
Example of compound verb:
Raoul and Paul play ball and eat Skittles.
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A sentence with two or more independent clauses
is called a compound sentence.
A complex sentence.
One independent
clause and one
subordinate clause.
A simple sentence.
One independent
clause.
Example: Maria
wrote several
books.
Example: Maria wrote
several books as she
recovered.
A compound sentence.
Two or more
independent clauses.
Raoul plays ball,
and Paul eats
Skittles.
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How do you make compound sentences? By
joining independent clauses.
Rule #11: You may join two independent clauses
with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Raoul plays ball, and Paul eats Skittles.
A coordinating conjunction joins words, phrases,
or independent clauses.
There are seven of them, and their first letters
spell FANBOYS.
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. FANBOYS.
Rule #12: You may join two independent clauses
with a semicolon.
Raoul plays ball; Paul eats Skittles.
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Rule #13: You may join two independent clauses
with a colon if the second clause explains or
summarizes the first. Here’s an example:
Your paper needs work: it lacks flow.
But if you switch the clauses, the second doesn’t
explain or summarize the first clause anymore.
Example:
Your paper lacks flow; it needs work.
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Rule #14: You may join two independent clauses
with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a
comma.
Raoul plays ball; nevertheless, Paul eats Skittles.
A conjunctive adverb is a connecting word that
shows how the ideas in two independent clauses
relate to each other. Another example:
He loves Chinese food; besides, he likes to eat
out with us wherever we go.
Hereaccordingly
are some conjunctive
certainlyadverbs:
consequently
furthermore
hence
however
incidentally
indeed
likewise
moreover
nevertheless
nonetheless
similarly
thus
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undoubtedly
Here are some more common conjunctive
adverbs: to write down in your packet:
also
besides
however
instead
otherwise
therefore
On page 96, sentences #34 - #41, underline each
clause. In each clause, circle the subject and
draw a rectangle around the verb. Then correct
the punctuation in the clause using our four new
rules.
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A sentence with two or more independent clauses
and one or more subordinate clauses is called a
compound-complex sentence.
A complex sentence.
One independent
clause and one
subordinate clause.
A simple sentence.
One independent
clause.
Example: Maria
wrote several
books.
Example: Maria wrote
several books as she
recovered.
A compound sentence.
Two or more
independent clauses.
Raoul plays ball,
and Paul eats
Skittles.
A compound-complex
sentence.
A sentence with two or more
independent clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses.
New games are sold every Christmas;
nevertheless, many games that have
been around for generations retain their
popularity.
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Compound-complex sentences don’t have their
own punctuation rules. When you write a
compound-complex sentence, just use the
punctuation rules for compound sentences and
complex sentences.
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Run-ons are incorrectly joined sentences.
Here’s an example:
The game was exciting, we stayed to the end.
What’s wrong with it?
(A comma splice is a run-on that joins two
sentences with only a comma.)
How would you fix it?
Use rule #11, #12, #13, or #14, or make them into
two sentences!
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What is a fragment?
A fragment is punctuated to look like a sentence,
but it isn’t a sentence. A fragment often is missing
a subject or a verb, or it is disconnected from an
independent clause.
Examples of fragments:
On the radio right now.
Paul, a debonair dresser who goes practically
nowhere without his top hat and cane.
Weathered the storm and lived to tell about it.
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Rule #15: Avoid fragments and run-ons, such as
comma splices.
On page 96, sentences #42 - #48, put an “F”
beside each sentence fragment and an “R-O”
beside each run-on sentence. Then correct each
fragment and run-on to make them into sentences.
In each new sentence, underline each clause. In
each clause, circle the subject and put a rectangle
around each verb.
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