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Syntax Lecture 13: Revision Lecture 1: X-bar Theory • X-bar rules for introducing: – Complement • (X1 X0 Y2) – Specifier • (X2 Y2 X1) – Adjunct • (Xn Xn, Ym) if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Lecture 1: X-bar Theory • X-bar rules for introducing: – Complement • (X’ X YP) – Specifier • (XP YP X’) – Adjunct • (Xn Xn, Ym) if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Lecture 1: X-bar Theory • X-bar rules for introducing: – Complement • (X’ X YP) – Specifier • (XP YP X’) – Adjunct • (Xn Xn, Ym) if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Lecture 1: X-bar Theory • X-bar rules for introducing: – Complement • (X’ X YP) – Specifier • (XP YP X’) – Adjunct • (Xn Xn, Ym) if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Adjunction to XP: adjunct = YP (Y2) Lecture 1: X-bar Theory • X-bar rules for introducing: – Complement • (X’ X YP) – Specifier • (XP YP X’) – Adjunct • (Xn Xn, Ym) if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Adjunction to X’: adjunct = YP Lecture 1: X-bar Theory • X-bar rules for introducing: – Complement • (X’ X YP) – Specifier • (XP YP X’) – Adjunct • (Xn Xn, Ym) if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Adjunction to X: adjunct = Y Lecture 1: X-bar Theory • DP analysis: an example – Determiner is the head of the nominal phrase – NP is complement – Possessor is specifier Lecture 1: X-bar theory 1) a b c d A: the sister of the head is the specifier B: the mother of the head is X’ A is true and B is false A is false and B is true A and B are false A and B are true Lecture 2: Categories and Subcategorisation • Binary features – [±F] – [±N] – [±V] functional vs. thematic nounlike vs. not nounlike verblike vs. not verblike Lecture 2: Categories and Subcategorisation • [-F] categories – – – – [+N, -V] [-N, +V] [+N, +V] [-N, -V] noun verb adjective/adverb preposition N V A P determiner inflection degree adverb complementiser D I Deg C • [+F] categories – – – – [+N, -V] [-N, +V] [+N, +V] [-N, -V] Lecture 2: Categories and Subcategorisation • Subcategories of [-F] categories determine what arguments a head selects – DP, PP, CP, , etc. – E.g. • • • • • write [DP a letter] smile fact [CP that the world is round] out [PP from the cupboard] certain [CP that I am right] Lecture 2: Categories and Subcategorisation • All [+F] categories have only one type of complement: –D –I –C – Deg – NP – VP – IP – AP Lecture 2: Categories and Subcategorisation 2) a b c d Which categories are [+N, +V]? Nouns and adjectives/adverbs Nouns and determiners Adjectives/adverbs and prepositions Adjectives/adverbs and degree adverbs Lecture 3: The Subject • The subject is odd – It can be an argument of the verb • But it isn’t in the VP – It can be meaningless – It can be underlyingly empty and moved into • E.g. passive Lecture 3: The Subject • We also find VPs with subjects – He made [VP the ice melt] • So there are two subject positions – but only one subject Lecture 3: The Subject • Solution – Subject originates inside VP • D-structure – Moves to specifier of IP • S-structure Lecture 3: The Subject 3) a b c d What is in the specifier of an active IP at Sstructure Nothing The subject The object The VP Lecture 4: The complementiser system • The complementiser heads a CP – Different forces • Declarative (that/for) • Interrogative (if) • The IP is its complement – Different complements • Finite (that/if) • Infinitive (for) • Wh-phrases move to its specifier Lecture 4: The complementiser system 4) a b c d What is the complementiser of the underlined CP in the following? I wonder [CP whether he knows] A phonologically empty complementiser There is no complementiser Whether If Lecture 5:Wh-movement • Wh-phrases move for semantic reasons – A CP with a wh-phrase in spec is interrogative – A CP without a wh-phrase in spec (and no interrogative head) is declarative • But not all wh-clauses are interrogative – Relative clauses involve wh-movement – The relative wh-phrase moves to enable to clause to be interpreted as a modifier – So, all wh-movement is semantically motivated Lecture 5:Wh-movement • Restrictive relative clauses – Wh-relative • The man [CP who you dislike] – that-relative • The man [CP that you dislike] – zero relative • The man [CP you dislike] – All involve wh-movement • The wh-phrase is covert in that and zero relatives Lecture 5:Wh-movement 5) a b c d What is in the specifier of CP of a restrictive relative clause which is introduced by an overt complementiser? Nothing An overt wh-phrase A covert wh-phrase that Lecture 6: non-finite clause subjects • There are two types of infinitival clause which appear to lack a subject – John seems [ -- to be rich] – John wants [ -- to be rich] • They look the same, but they are not. Lecture 6: non-finite clause subjects • Raising verbs – lack their own subjects – can take infinitival complements, – the subject moves to the subject of the raising verb Lecture 6: non-finite clause subjects • Control verbs – have their own subjects – can take infinitival complements, – the subject is a covert pronoun which refers to the subject of the control verb Lecture 6: non-finite clause subjects 6) a b c d In the following structure, if V is a control verb, what will be in ‘—’ at S-structure? [ – may V [ John is rich]] A meaningless element (it) John PRO The verb’s own subject argument Lecture 7: Verb positions • They are in V when – I is a free morpheme – I is a bound morpheme, but the verb cannot move • In negative contexts • In inversion contexts where the subject stays in spec IP • They are in I when – I is a bound morpheme and the verb can move • They are in C when – I is a bound morpheme – I to C movement (inversion) is necessary – The subject moves to spec CP Lecture 7: Verb positions • When a verb moves to support a bound morpheme, it adjoins to the morpheme Lecture 7: Verb positions 7) a b c d In a main clause with the following Dstructure, what will be in C at S-structure? [CP - [IP -- -ed [VP John see who]]] did saw that who Lecture 8: Verb types 1 • Causatives – They made the ice melt • Overt free causative verb • Lexical verb does not move – They melted the ice • Covert bound causative verb • lexical verb moves to support it Lecture 8: Verb types 1 • Transitives – John may throw Bill • • • • Theme is specifier of throw Agent is specifier of covert bound agentive verb (= do) Lexical verb moves to support agentive verb Agent moves to subject position • Passives – Bill may be thrown • • • • Theme is specifier of throw Passive morpheme replaces agentive verb, so no agent Lexical verb moves to support passive morpheme Theme moves to subject position Lecture 8: Verb types 1 8) a b c d In which of the following sentences is there a covert verb bound by the lexical verb? He was killed They made him walk I saved him The ice melted Lecture 9: verb types 2 • Unergative verbs – Take cognate objects – Can’t appear in there and locative inversion constructions – Have an agent argument Lecture 9: verb types 2 • Unaccusative verbs – Can’t take a cognate object – Can appear in there and locative inversion structures – Have a theme argument Lecture 9: verb types 2 9) a b c d If V is an unaccusative verb, which of the following sentences will be ungrammatical? He V-ed a cunning V There V-ed a letter In the post V-ed a letter The letter V-ed Lecture 10: auxiliary verbs • The aspectual morphemes (-ing, -en) are heads of VPs • Main verbs can support only one overt bound morpheme • All other morphemes have to be supported by a dummy auxiliary (do, have and be) – Do is used when the following verbal head is a thematic verb – Have is used when the following head is perfect (-en) – Be is used in all other cases Lecture 10: auxiliary verbs 10) In a sentence containing the following sequence of bound morphemes, which one will be supported by be? tense – perfect - progressive a Tense b Perfect c Progressive d None of them Lecture 11: the DP • Empty determiners with proper nouns and bare plurals – [DP John], [DP men] • Post determiners are APs in specifier of NP – [DP the [NP [AP very few] complaints] • Pre-determiners are determiners preceding an abstract ‘group noun’ for which of does not have to appear – [DP all [NP members of [DP the committee]]] – [DP all [NP (of) [DP the crowd]]] Lecture 11: the DP 11) Which of the following DPs does not involve an abstract group noun? a Very few of the men b Both the men c All men d Some of the men Lecture 12: adjectival phrases • Adjectival phrases are headed by a degree adverb (so they are DegPs) • DegPs have measure phrases in their specifiers and APs in their complements – [DegP [two sandwiches] [Deg’ too [AP short of a picnic]]] • APs have extent phrases (very) in their specifiers and PPs, CPs or nothing in their complements – So [AP very [A’ small [PP for a giant]]] • Deg can be free (too, as, so, etc.) or bound (-er, est) – In the latter case the adjective moves to bind the Deg Lecture 12: adjectival phrases 12) In which of the following DegPs is the specifier of AP filled? a really very funny b almost too wide c so bright d better than the rest Answers • • • • • • 1 2 3 4 5 6 = = = = = = b d b a c d • • • • • • 7 = 8 = 9 = 10 = 11 = 12 = a c a b c a • • • • • 0-6 7 8 9-10 11-12 = = = = = 1 2 3 4 5