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Chapter 23 Population genetics Population: a localized group of individuals belonging to the same species Species: a group of populations whose individuals have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring Gene pool: the total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time Population genetics: the study of genetic changes in populations Modern synthesis/neo-Darwinism “Individuals are selected, but populations evolve.” Hardy-Weinberg Theorem Serves as a model for the genetic structure of a nonevolving population (equilibrium) 5 conditions: 1- Very large population size; 2- No migration; 3- No net mutations; 4- Random mating; 5- No natural selection Hardy-Weinberg Equation p=frequency of one allele (A); q=frequency of the other allele (a); p + q=1.0 (p=1-q & q=1-p) P2=frequency of AA genotype; 2pq=frequency of Aa plus aA genotype; q2=frequency of aa genotype; p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.0 Microevolution, I New definition of Evolution at the population level. Evolution is a generation to generation change in a population’ s frequencies of alleles. This also can be called microevolution: A change in the gene pool of a population over a succession of generations 1- Genetic drift: changes in the gene pool of a small population due to chance (usually reduces genetic variability) Figure 23.4 Genetic drift Microevolution, II The Bottleneck Effect: type of genetic drift resulting from a reduction in population (natural disaster) such that the surviving population is no longer genetically representative of the original population Microevolution, III Founder Effect: a cause of genetic drift attributable to colonization by a limited number of individuals from a parent population Microevolution, IV 2- Gene Flow: genetic exchange due to the migration of fertile individuals or gametes between populations (reduces differences between populations) Microevolution, V 3- Mutations: a change in an organism’s DNA (gametes; many generations); original source of genetic variation (raw material for natural selection) 4- Nonrandom mating: inbreeding and assortive mating (both shift frequencies of different genotypes) 5- Natural Selection: differential success in reproduction; only form of microevolution that adapts a population to its environment Population variation Polymorphism: coexistence of 2 or more distinct forms of individuals (morphs) within the same population Geographical variation: differences in genetic structure between populations (cline) Figure 23.8 Clinal variation in a plant Two Random Processes that generate genetic variation Mutation – new alleles originate only by mutation. Rare and random events and usually occur in somatic cells and are not passed on to the offspring. Sexual Recombination combines old alleles with new and fresh assortments every generation. Variation preservation Prevention of natural selection’s reduction of variation Diploidy 2nd set of chromosomes hides variation in the heterozygote Balanced polymorphism 1- heterozygote advantage (hybrid vigor; i.e., malaria/sickle-cell anemia); 2- frequency dependent selection (survival & reproduction of any 1 morph declines if it becomes too common; i.e., parasite/host) Natural selection Fitness: contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation 3 types: A. Directional B. Diversifying C. Stabilizing Figure 23.12 Modes of selection Sexual selection Sexual dimorphism: secondary sex characteristic distinction Sexual selection: selection towards secondary sex characteristics that leads to sexual dimorphism 16.3 Maintenance of Diversity Genetic Variability Populations with limited variation may not be able to adapt to new conditions Maintenance of variability is advantageous to the population Only exposed alleles are subject to natural selection 18 Maintenance of Diversity Natural selection causes imperfect adaptations Depends on evolutionary history Imperfections are common because of necessary compromises The environment plays a role in maintaining diversity Disruptive selection due to environmental differences promotes polymorphisms in a population If a population occupies a wide range, it may have several subpopulations designated as subspecies The environment includes selecting agents that help maintain diversity 19 Subspecies Help Maintain Diversity Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pantheropsis obsoleta obsoleta Pantheropsis obsoleta quadrivittata Pantheropsis obsoleta lindheimeri Pantheropsis obsoleta rossalleni Pantheropsis obsoleta spiloides (E.o. lindheimeri, E.o. quadrivittata): © Zig Leszczynski/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; (E.o. spiloides): © Joseph Collins/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (E.o. rossalleni): © Dale Jackson/Visuals Unlimited; (E.o. obsoleta): © William Weber/Visuals Unlimited 20 Maintenance of Diversity Recessive alleles: Heterozygotes shelter recessive alleles from selection Heterozygotes allow even lethal alleles to remain in the population at low frequencies virtually forever Sometimes recessive alleles confer an advantage to heterozygotes The sickle-cell anemia allele is detrimental in homozygote However, heterozygotes are more likely to survive malaria The sickle-cell allele occurs at a higher frequency in malaria prone areas 21 Maintenance of Diversity Heterozygote Advantage Assists the maintenance of genetic, and therefore phenotypic, variations in future generations. In sickle cell disease heterozygous individuals don’t die from sickle-cell disease, and they don’t die from malaria. 22