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MACROMOLECULES Carbohydrates and Lipids AKA … Sugars and Fats Types of Carbohydrates 1. 2. 3. Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides (Di’s and Tri’s) Polysaccharides Carbs… Monosaccharides “ONE” simple “SUGAR” sugar containing 3 to 7 carbons examples: glucose, fructose, galactose provides instant energy “STRAIGHT CHAIN” FORM “RING” FORM (in water) Carbs… Characteristics of Sugars 1) An –OH group is attached to each carbon except one; this carbon is double bonded to an oxygen (carbonyl group Start numbering the carbons of your sugars at the end closest to the carbonyl group!!! 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 Carbs… Characteristics of Sugars 2) Size of carbon skeleton varies from 3 to 7 carbons. Classification Number of Carbons Example Triose 3 Glyceraldehyde Pentose 5 Ribose Hexose 6 Glucose Carbs… Characteristics of Sugars 3) Spatial arrangements may vary. For example, glucose and galactose are stereoisomers. Can you spot the only difference??? Notice how the –OH’s are on different sides. This affects the properties of these molecules & makes them chemically different 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 Carbs… Characteristics of Sugars 4) In aqueous solutions, many monosaccharides form rings. Equilibrium favours the ring structure. The #5C –OH reacts within the molecule at the terminal aldehyde group, breaking the double bond and creates a closed ring 6 5 1 2 4 2 3 4 5 6 3 1 Carbs… Dissaccharides “TWO” “SUGARS” made up of two monosaccharides common examples: glucose + glucose = maltose (malt sugar) glucose + fructose = sucrose (table sugar) glucose + galactose = lactose (milk sugar) MOO!!! Dissaccharides… cont’d the forming of a disaccharide creates water in the process - this is known as dehydation synthesis or condensation reaction the connection between monosaccharides is called a glycosidic linkage Polysaccharides “MANY” “SUGARS” a complex carbohydrate consisting of many simple sugars linked together Functions: Energy Storage Starch - in plants Glycogen - in animals Structural Support Cellulose – component of plant cell wall Chitin – exoskeleton of arthropods •Glycogen is a branched polysaccharide. This makes glycogen more loosely packed, allowing enzymes to access it easily to be broken down into glucose. • Cellulose is tightly packed because of the lack of branches. This allows the cellulose molecules to stack themselves closer to each other, creating bonds between molecules. This causes it to be rigid and makes it difficult to break down. Macromolecule #2 LIPIDS Functions: Long-term energy storage (triglycerides) Form cell membrane (phospholipids) Messaging (steroids act as hormones) Insulation Cushioning of Internal Organs Lipids Why are lipids well suited for long term energy storage? Contain many high energy bonds between carbon and hydrogen Contain twice as much energy per gram than carbohydrates (very concentrated) Types of Lipids 1. 2. 3. 4. Fats (triglycerides) Phospholipids Steroids Waxes Fats Made up of glycerol and 3 fatty acids. There are many kinds of fatty acids. They differ in two ways: 1. In length 2. In the # of hydrogen atoms attached to it An Example of a Fat Molecule (Triglyceride) 1 2 3 Glycerol Fatty acids Digestion of a Fat Molecule + 3 H2O triglyceride Fig 1.22 p. 29 + glycerol The above is a hydrolysis reaction. What is the reverse of this reaction called? 3 fatty acids Types of Fatty Acids SATURATED (palmitic acid) No double bonds between carbons MONOUNSATURATED (oleic acid) 1 double bond POLYUNSATURATED (linoleic acid) More than 2 double bonds Saturated # of double bonds between carbons Orientation State at Room Temp. Origin Which are better for you? Example Unsaturated Polyunsaturated Types of Fats Poly Saturated Unsaturated unsaturated # of Double Bonds between carbons none At least one double bond between carbon atoms Several double bonds Types of Fats… cont’d Poly Saturated Unsaturated unsaturated Orientation of Fatty Acids Straight chains Kinks / Kinks / bends at the bends at the double double bonds bonds Types of Fats… cont’d Poly Saturated Unsaturated unsaturated State at Room Temp. Solid (tightly packed) Liquid (less tightly packed) Liquid (even less tightly packed) Types of Fats… cont’d Poly Saturated Unsaturated unsaturated Origin Animals (meat, dairy) Plants Types of Fats… cont’d Poly Saturated Unsaturated unsaturated Bad for Which are healthier? Stored in adipose tissue Healthier Types of Fats… cont’d Poly Saturated Unsaturated unsaturated Examples Butter, lard Olive oil, vegetable oil, peanut oil, canola oil (genetically modified) What up with TRANS-FATS? NOT GOOD FOR YOU!!! (FRIES, PEANUT BUTTER) Created from oils (unsaturated) that are hydrogenated (hydrogen added to double bonds) Done to increase shelf life, flavour, & workability (eg. semi-solid for baking) Only partial hydrogenation occurs & get a change in the orientation of hydrogens around some double bonds This fat is packaged by your body as LDL (aka BAD cholesterol) leaving you @ risk for heart disease, artheriosclerosis, diabetes & obesity Type of Lipids #2 PHOSPHOLIPIDS are fat derivatives in which one fatty acid has been replaced by a phosphate group and one of several nitrogencontaining molecules. an important part of the cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer) Phospholipid Figure 1.23 p. 29 Phospholipid • The phospholipid can also be represented as: Polar Head – hydrophilic (water-loving) Non-Polar Tails (fatty acids) - hydrophobic (water-hating) Type of Lipids #3 STEROIDS Steroids consist of 4 fused carbon rings Cholesterol Testosterone •Precursor for other steroids •Component of animal cell membranes •Contributes to arteriosclerosis MACROMOLECULES Proteins Proteins FUNCTIONS Act as enzymes (to control chemical reactions) Provide support and help shape cells Act as transporters (hemoglobin) Act as hormones Make up structures (hair, cartilage) Act as antibodies (immunoglobulins) Proteins are polymers of… 20 Amino Acids 8 Essential Need to obtain via diet 12 Non-Essential Body can make Amino Acid Structure R – Side Chain Amino Group Carboxyl Group Central Carbon R – Side Chain 20 possibilities; different R-groups give the amino acid different biological properties Proteins Are often very large polymers of many amino acids (monomers) linked together to form POLYPEPTIDES Proteins are built by condensation reactions forming peptide bonds. aa1 – aa2 aa1 – aa2 -- aa3 aa1 – aa2 -- aa3 – aan dipeptide tripeptide polypeptide Proteins are broken down through hydrolysis reactions Polypeptides Polypeptide Chain Amino Acid Amino Acid Amino Acid Peptide Bonds (Amide Linkage) This polypeptide will begin to fold over on itself until it has reached its 3-dimensional shape The folding will be determined by the R-group interactions of the specific amino acid sequence It is only the final shape that will determine the protein’s specific function Peptide Bonds + H2O This is a … DEHYDRATION REACTION! Text: Appendix 5 p. 559-561 Levels of Protein Structure Primary Structure Amino acid linear sequence Secondary Structure Folding into a helix or pleated sheet Levels of Protein Structure p. 559-562: Appendix 5 Tertiary Structure Folding of secondary structures into a 3-D shape Quarternary Structure 2 or more polypeptide chains assembling together Hemoglobin – A Complex Protein Found in RBCs, is responsible for oxygen transport to your cells for respiration Scientists believe the protein dates back 4 billion years to the start of life A quarternary protein consisting of 4 polypeptides 2 of the polypeptides (α subunits) contain 141 amino acids while the other 2 (β subunits) contain 146 amino acids Hemoglobin – A Complex Protein Heme Heme groups contain iron (II), acting as sites where oxygen molecules can bind Hemoglobin – At the Heme of it all DID YOU KNOW? These molecular cages are called porphyrins and are thought to have predated oxygen (2 billion years ago) back when single celled living things used sulfur in its metabolism