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Section Outline 2–1 The Nature of Matter A.Atoms B.Elements and Isotopes 1. Isotopes 2. Radioactive Isotopes C.Chemical Compounds D.Chemical Bonds 1. Ionic Bonds 2. Covalent Bonds 3. Van der Waals Forces Go to Section: Structure of the Atom-made of sub-atomic particles: Section 2-2 a. Protons - these positively (+) charged particles are found only in the nucleus. They determine the identity of the atom. The number of protons in the nucleus will never change. b. Neutrons - these neutral particles have no charge (0). They are only found in the nucleus. The number of neutrons can change in atoms of elements. c. Electrons - these negatively (-) charged particles are found in energy levels outside the nucleus. They are likely to be found in certain levels, but may change levels when energy is absorbed or given off. The number of electrons can change in atoms. ( P=E) Go to Section: When electrons sit in certain energy levels they have different degrees of stability. This determines the reactivity of certain atoms. Elements - They consists of only one type of atom such as gold, nitrogen, copper, etc. Their atoms are abbreviated with symbols (Au, N, Cu) Example: Na (sodium) It has only one electron in its outer energy level. This make it very unstable, so it wants to combine with other elements to stabilized. ( Its outer electron does not like to be alone!) Atomic Number - (P) This is the number of protons in the nucleus. It does not change and determines the atoms identity. When P = 5 the element is B (boron) Mass Number (atomic mass)- ( P + N) This is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Isotope - This is an atom of an element where the number of neutrons have changed. ( Ex: hydrogen isotopes) Go to Section: Radioactive Isotopes The extra Neutrons can cause the atoms to be unstable due to an imbalance of positive charge and break down over time, releasing radiation. They can also be used for many things such as: Sterilizing food Treating diseases such as cancer Tracer molecules for diagnosing diseases Measure the age of certain old artifacts and rocks (carbon dating) Radioactive Isotopes When a nucleus breaks apart, it gives off radiation that can be detected and used for many applications. (dating, tracers, disease) Two types of bonds: Ionic and Covalent 1. Ionic bonds - Electrons are given away or taken by another atom in order to stabilize. Ions are formed by each atom for this to take place. Ions are simply atoms with a positive ( +) or negative (-) charge. 2. Covalent Bonds- Electrons are shared by atoms in order to stabilize. Van der Waals forces – attraction between molecules due to opposite charges. Section 2-1 An Element in the Periodic Table 6 C Carbon 12.011 Go to Section: Section 2-1 Figure 2-2 Isotopes of Carbon Nonradioactive carbon-12 Nonradioactive carbon-13 6 electrons 6 protons 6 neutrons 6 electrons 6 protons 7 neutrons Go to Section: Radioactive carbon-14 6 electrons 6 protons 8 neutrons Figure 2-3 Ionic Bonding Section 2-1 Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl) Sodium ion (Na+) Chloride ion (Cl-) Transfer of electron Protons +11 Electrons -11 Charge 0 Go to Section: Protons +17 Electrons -17 Charge 0 Protons +11 Electrons -10 Charge +1 Protons +17 Electrons -18 Charge -1 Figure 2-3 Ionic Bonding Section 2-1 Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl) Sodium ion (Na+) Chloride ion (Cl-) Transfer of electron Protons +11 Electrons -11 Charge 0 Go to Section: Protons +17 Electrons -17 Charge 0 Protons +11 Electrons -10 Charge +1 Protons +17 Electrons -18 Charge -1 Section Outline 2–2 Properties of Water A.The Water Molecule 1. Polarity 2. Hydrogen Bonds B.Solutions and Suspensions 1. Solutions 2. Suspensions C. Acids, Bases, and pH 1. The pH Scale 2. Acids 3. Bases 4. Buffers Go to Section: Polarity Universal solvent Expands when solid Covers most of the earth What is it? Polarity – one end is slightly + the other -. Water molecules join other water molecules in tight bonds. This acts like a magnet to dissolve compounds Water! Section 2-2 Figure 2-9 NaCI Solution ClCl- Na+ Na+ Water Go to Section: Water Figure 2-9 NaCI Solution Section 2-2 ClCl- Na+ Na+ Water Go to Section: Water Acids and Bases Substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water are called acids. Substances that release hydroxide ions (OH–) when dissolved in water are called bases. pH Scale Oven cleaner Increasingly Basic Bleach Acidic solutions have pH values lower than 7. Increasingly Acidic Neutral Ammonia solution Basic solutions have pH values higher than 7. Soap Sea water Human blood Pure water Milk Normal rainfall Acid rain Tomato juice Lemon juice Stomach acid *Neutralization = acid + base water + a salt Link Go to Section: Mixtures: Two or more elements or compounds physically combined. Ex: koolaid captain crunch Soil salad dressing soda Whipped cream dust Blood Fog metal alloys chocolate milk Two types of mixtures: Solutions – molecules of the solute (smaller amount) uniformly spread into solvent (larger amount). Which of the above items are solutions? Suspension – solute does not dissolve in the solvent. Settles over time. Name some from above. Homogenous Mixtures (solution) A mixture that has a uniform composition throughout A solvent is a substance in which another substance is dissolved. A solute is the substance that is dissolved in the solvent. Food coloring dissolved in water forms a homogenous mixture. Heterogeneous Mixtures or suspensions In a heterogeneous mixture, the components remain distinct. A salad is a heterogeneous mixture. Section 2-3 Section Outline 2–3Carbon Compounds A.The Chemistry of Carbon B.Macromolecules Section 2-1 C.Carbohydrates D.Lipids E.Nucleic Acids F. Proteins Go to Section: 6 C Carbon 12.011 Would you like some Ethyl butyrane ice cream? What is this? “Pineapple” ice cream! Flavor comes from organic compounds. C, N, H, O - these elements make up almost all chemical compounds in living things. Carbon atoms can form long chains and Go to rings. Section: Organic Chemistry The element carbon is a component of almost all biological molecules. Carbon has four electrons in its outermost energy level. One carbon atom can form four covalent bonds Carbon compounds can be in the shape of straight chains, branched chains, and rings. Concept Map Section 2-3 Carbon Compounds include Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins that consist of that consist of that consist of that consist of Sugars and starches Fats and oils Nucleotides Amino Acids which contain which contain Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Go to Section: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen which contain which contain Carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus Carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen, Figure 2-11 Carbon Compounds Methane Acetylene Butadiene Benzene Isooctane Carbohydrates- made of C, H, O. Ratio of 2 hydrogen to 1 oxygen. Function: energy source a. Monosaccharides:simple sugar. (mono-single or one) Examples: Glucose –plant sugar Fructose – fruit sugar Galactose – milk sugar Isomers –all three sugars listed above have the samemolecular composition (C6 H12 O6 ), but are different in shape. b. Disaccharides – double sugars. Two monosaccharides combined in a condensation reaction to make a disaccharide. Examples: Sucrose –table sugar (glucose + fructose) Lactose –milk sugar (glucose + galactose) Maltose – glucose + glucose c. Polysaccharides – 3 or more monosaccharides joined from condensation reactions. 3 types: glycogen- animal storage of glucose. (animal starch) Starch- plants store glucose in long chains and coils. Cellulose – gives strength and structure to plants from chains of glucose. Figure 2-13 A Starch Section 2-3 Starch Glucose Go to Section: Lipids (2nd type of organic molecule) A fat-like substance made of C, H, O but has less oxygen than carbohydrates. They do not dissolve in water. Includes: fat, oils, waxes. Cell membrane is made mostly of lipids Function: Lipids store energy very well, due to the large # C-H Lipids –made of many fatty acid monomers.(units) Fatty Acids- What are these? Chains of C-H (hydrocarbons) with a C-O-O- H (carboxyl group) at one end. See P. 51. The two ends are different. -Polar end (carboxyl) attracted to water. Three types of lipids: 1. Triglycerides – made of 3 fatty acids joined to one molecule of glycerol. Includes: oils- liquid at room temperature (plants) Fats- solid at room temperature (animals) 2. Wax – made of long fatty acid chain + alcohol.Very waterproof. 3. Steroid – made of 4 carbon rings. Does not dissolve in water. Includes: poisons, hormones, etc. Proteins – (3rd type of organic molecule) Made of C, H, O and N. Made of amino acids hooked together (monomers). Important in life process in plants and animals. Amino Acids (AA) -piece that make-up proteins. Differences in aa are due to different R-groups. 20 different aa exist. Peptide bond –bonds which link peptides (aa) Polypeptide – a long chain of many aa linked. Enzymes – a special type of protein - acts as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions. *Enzymes fit like “puzzle-pieces” to certain molecules, which are called substrates. Functions of Proteins: Enzymes support Insulin antibodies muscle contraction store nutrients toxins Figure 2-16 Amino Acids Section 2-3 Amino group Carboxyl group General structure Go to Section: Alanine Serine Figure 2-17 A Protein Section 2-3 Amino acids Go to Section: Nucleic Acids – 4th type of organic molecule. Function: - to store important info in cell (genetic) Two types: 1. DNA – (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – stores info in the cell to be used for cell functions(brain of cell) 2. RNA – (Ribonucleic Acid) stores and transfers information for making proteins. Nucleotides – Pieces which make up DNA and RNA Structure of nucleotides: phosphate group (P) 5-Carbon sugar Nitrogen base (N) Section Outline 2–4 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes A.Chemical Reactions B.Energy in Reactions 1. Energy Changes 2. Activation Energy C. Enzymes D. Enzyme Action 1. The Enzyme-Substrate Complex 2. Regulation of Enzyme Activity Go to Section: Chemical equations Section 2-4 Terms: reactants Products coefficients subscripts *Reactions are reversible Ex: HCL --> H + + ClH+ + Cl - ---> HCl C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6 ---> C12 H22 O11 + 2H 2O (glucose) (fructose) (sucrose) (water) Mg + F2 ---> Mg F2 H2 O --> O2 + H2 Some reactions are spontaneous, others require energy to begin. Exothermic vs. Endothermic? Gives off energy absorbs energy (in) Go to Section: Enzymes reduce the activation energy needed for reactions. Effect of Enzymes Reaction pathway without enzyme Activation energy without enzyme Reactants Reaction pathway with enzyme Activation energy with enzyme Products Go to Section: Section 2-4 Figure 2-19 Chemical Reactions Energy-Absorbing Reaction Energy-Releasing Reaction Activation energy Products Activation energy Reactants Reactants Products Go to Section: Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Go to Section: Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Go to Section: Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Go to Section: Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Go to Section: Substrates bind to enzyme