Download Chapter Four

Chapter Four
Ethical Theories:
•Enlightened Self-interest
•Contractarianism
•Feminist Ethics
•Ethical Relativism and Absolutism
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Enlightened Self-interest
Thomas Hobbes
The natural condition of humans is
constant conflict. We must impose moral
and legal structures upon ourselves in
order to live together.
This means subjecting our natural egoism
to the following eight restraints:
(Continued)
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Enlightened Self-interest
1. Claim as much liberty as we are willing
to grant to others.
2. Keep promises and perform contracts
to which we have agreed.
3. Acknowledge the equality of all.
4. Do not demand of others what we are
unwilling to do ourselves.
(Continued)
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Enlightened Self-interest
5. Things that cannot be divided
should be shared in common.
6. People who disagree should submit
their dispute to arbitrators.
7. Judges should be impartial.
8. We should not do to others what we
don’t want them to do to us.
(Continued)
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Enlightened Self-interest
It is in our own best interest that everyone,
including we ourselves, lives by these
restraints, in order to escape anarchy.
Therefore, according to enlightened selfinterest, an action is morally acceptable if it
benefits an individual (or organization)
without intentionally harming others, and
the benefits counterbalance the harm.
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Applying Enlightened Self-interest
Dr. Kevorkian was convicted and imprisoned
for performing physician-assisted suicide on
his terminally-ill patients at their request.
According to enlightened self-interest (an
action is morally acceptable if it benefits an
individual without intentionally harming
others, and the benefits counterbalance the
harm) were his actions ethical or unethical?
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Proponents’ and Critics’ View of
Enlightened Self-interest
What are some arguments that someone
who believed in enlightened self-interest
would give to support this ethical
framework?
What are some arguments that someone
who did not agree with enlightened selfinterest would make to criticize this
ethical framework?
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Contractarianism
John Rawls
An implied agreement or social contract
intended to ensure equality and justice for all
members of a society.
We reach this agreement by three steps:
1. Consider your contingent attributes
(the physical, psychological, intellectual,
cultural and social attributes which limit
one’s freedom and cause inequity between
people.)
(Continued)
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Contractarianism
2. Imagine an unbiased original position
(a condition of not yet knowing our
personal contingent attributes.)
3. Determine what moral and legal rules
you would agree to in a state of
ignorance, to protect your primary
goods.
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Rawls’ Three Primary Goods
1. Health (access to health care)
2. Liberty (freedom to pursue our
interests within acceptable bounds)
3. Opportunity (to achieve secondary
wants [wealth, etc.] through our
own efforts)
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Applying Contractarianism
Consider a rule at work or in school, which you
do not agree with.
Why do you consider it wrong?
Under what circumstances (consider different contingent
attributes) would you appreciate this rule?
If you did not know what your contingent attributes would be,
would you make this rule?
If not, what rule would you make (from the original position) for
this situation?
Does your rule protect the primary goods of everyone
concerned?
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Proponents’ and Critics’ View of
Contractarianism
What are some arguments that someone
who believed in contractarianism would
give to support this ethical framework?
What are some arguments that someone
who did not agree with
contractarianism would make to
criticize this ethical framework?
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Feminist Ethics
“Ethics of Care”—intent is to strengthen
relationships and sense of community
Originated in Carol Gilligan’s studies of
female moral development
Emphasis is on sensitivity, caring and
one’s responsibility to others, rather
than on objectivity and individuality
(Continued)
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Feminist Ethics
Rules must be substantively equal for
women and men, and take into
consideration the different roles and
responsibilities men and women
hold at work and also outside of
work.
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Applying Feminist Ethics
Name some workplace issues that affect female
employees.
How might the following be perceived to be
substantively unfair to women:
• Equal numbers of sick days and personal leave
days?
• Hiring practices that rely on networking?
• Promotions and salary grids measured in months
of work accrued?
(Continued)
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Applying Feminist Ethics
What policies would be substantively fair
to all employees?
Consider a current social issue, such as
same-sex marriage. Which side of that
issue shows a more caring approach to
others? Which side promotes and
strengthens relationships between
people?
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Proponents’ and Critics’ View of
Feminist Ethics
What are some arguments that someone
who believed in feminist ethics would
give to support this ethical framework?
What are some arguments that someone
who did not agree with feminist ethics
would make to criticize this ethical
framework?
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Ethical Relativism and
Absolutism
Ethical relativism means that what is
morally right or wrong is relative to the
situation or to the culture you are in.
Ethical absolutism means that what is
morally right or wrong is absolute, no
matter what the situation is or what
country or culture you are in.
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Absolutism
Moral truths are the same for everyone.
All morals are
absolute no matter
what the situation.
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
Some morals are
absolute in any
situation, others
are relative to the
situation.
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Cultural Relativism
Moral truths are relative to each culture
but the same for everyone within the
culture.
All morals are
relative to the
culture.
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
Some morals are
relative to the culture,
others are absolute.
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Individual relativism
Moral truths are relative to each
individual.
All morals are
relative to the
individual.
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
Some morals
are relative to
the individual,
others are absolute.
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Theoretical Approaches
Deontological
(duty or principles)
Teleological
(ends or consequences)
Divine Command Theory
Socrates’ Healthy Soul
Kantian Duty Ethics
Utilitarianism (J. S. Mill
Virtue Ethics (Aristotle)
Enlightened Self-interest
Contractarianism (Rawls)
Feminist Ethics
Absolutism
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
Relativism
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Normative and Descriptive Ethics
Descriptive ethics describes the ethical culture
of an organization.
Normative ethics sets a norm or standard for
ethical behaviour.
They are often used to analyze the current
ethical climate or culture within an
organization (descriptive) and to compare it
to an ideal or desired standard of ethical
behaviour (normative).
(Continued)
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
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Normative and Descriptive Ethics
Descriptive Ethics
Observes and describes
people’s actual
behaviour
Explains why people
behave this way
The behaviour we
exhibit defines us
Copyright  2010 Pearson Education Canada / J A McLachlan
Normative Ethics
Sets a standard for how
people ought to behave
Justifies why people
ought to behave this
way
Our conscious choices
of action define us
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