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Biology 2201 Unit 2- Biodiversity Classifying Living Things Ch. 6 – Plants & Animals Ms. K. Morris – 2010-2011 Section 6.1 • Comparing Plants & Animals –p. 164 - 168 Major Similarities: • They are both multi-cellular, eukaryotes. • Their sizes both range from microscopic to very large. Major Differences: • How they obtain food. • Movement • Evolution – Animals evolved in water, the only major groups found on land are the insects, spiders and mollusks (snails). – Plants evolved on land. Trees and grasses dominate the land. PLANTS ANIMALS Plants generally are rooted in one place an do not move on their own Most animals have the ability to move fairly freely. Plants contain chlorophyll and can make their own food Animals cannot make their own food and are dependent on plants and other animals for food. Plants give off oxygen and take in carbon dioxide given off by animals. Animals give off carbon dioxide which plants need to make food and take in oxygen which they need to breathe. Plants cells have cell walls and other structures differ from those of animals. Animal cells do not have cell walls and have different structures than plant cells Plants have either no or very basic ability to sense. Animals have a much more highly developed sensory and nervous system. Section 6.2 • Kingdom Plantae –p. 169 - 181 Kingdom Plantae – Plants Cell Type: all are eukaryotic. Cell Wall: their cells all have a rigid (stiff) cell wall, composed of cellulose. Body Form: all are multicellular. Nutrition: all are autotrophic and make their own food using photosynthesis. They use sunlight as an energy source and CO2 as a source of structural carbon. This means that their energy and carbon come to them. They do not have to move to acquire either. Reproduction: Asexual & Sexual. Locomotion: Non-motile. No movement. Examples from the Kingdom Plantae: 1. Bryophytes – Mosses, liverwarts, hornwarts 2. Ferns – Ferns, whisk ferns, club mosses, horsetails 3. Gymnosperms – Conifers, evergreens 4. Angiosperms – Flowers, deciduous trees, peas • Plants first appeared about 400 million years ago! • The ancestors of plants were algae. Made up of three parts: • Leaves- provide surface area for absorbing sunlight. • Stem- provides support for the leaves. • Roots- anchors the plant and absorbs water and nutrients from the soil. Plants are classified based upon two major characteristics: 1. Whether they have vascular tissue or not. • Vascular tissue - tissues used to efficiently transport food or water through a plant. • (present in Ferns, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms) 2. Their methods of reproduction. How plants carry out sexual reproduction and how they develop into new plants. • whether they reproduction by using male sperm or male pollen • whether they develop from spores or seeds (spore development is less advanced) • what types of reproductive organs they have present (flowers, cones, antheridia, ovule, etc.) • gamete - a cell involved in sexual reproduction; male or female sex cell such as sperm or eggs. • spore - a single, specialized reproductive cell released from a parent plant which can grow into a new plant. (produced by the Bryophytes and the Ferns) • seed - a multicellular structure containing several specialized tissues and a partially developed, immature plant embryo. It contains a food supply for the embryo and is protected by a tough, outer coat. (produced by the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms) • pollen grain - the male gamete of a Gymnosperm or an Angiosperm. It is a protective capsule which contains the male gamete. It is transported by wind or carried on insects or animals. (produced by the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms) Two Major groups of plants: VASCULAR – These plants have vascular tissue made up of: – xylum (transports water) and – phloem (transports nutrients) • The xylum and phloem are comparable to our circulatory system because it transports water, dissolved nutrients and sugars to all parts of the plant. All plants are vascular except mosses, liverworts and hornworts (Bryophytes). NON-VASCULAR- These plants do not have vascular tissue. They also lack or have poorly developed roots, stems and leaves. They include: Mosses, Liverworts, Hornworts (Bryophytes). 1. The Bryophytes - The primitive plants • mosses, liverworts, hornworts ( see p. 170) • Nonvascular - have no vascular tissue. No true roots , stems or leaves ( true roots , stems and leaves have vascular tissue) • They are restricted to a very tiny size; tallest mosses are just 8 cm tall. This is because without vascular tissue to speed up the process, they must rely on diffusion to pass water and food from cell to cell throughout their bodies. The diffusion process is slow without the aid of vascular tissue so small size is a must. • They still depend on the presence of water for sexual reproduction to occur so they are restricted in their habitat to places that are wet enough to provide the proper conditions for this type of reproduction to occur. • They still use sperm cells to reproduce. This is a primitive process for land plants to use. • Male Bryophyte plants release sperm cells during rainfall or a heavy morning dew. The sperm must swim through the water coating on the plants and soil surface to reach female plants where they fertilize eggs. • The eggs are contained in an open structure called an archegonia. They are not protected well. • Archegonia - the egg producing structures of a bryophyte or fern. • Antheridia - the sperm producing structures of a bryophyte or a fern. • The moss life cycle has two body forms , the sporophyte and the gametophyte. (see diagram p. 170). They have a dominant (meaning that it is larger, lives the longest and is more complex) gametophyte generation. • Gametophyte- is a plant that produces gametes, egg or sperm. • Non-vascular plants include mosses (Bryophytes), hornworts, and liverworts. These have no vascular tissue and most get nutrients through diffusion and osmosis. • These plants grow low to the ground. • Non-vascular plants have no roots but they do have structures called rhizoids which anchor them to the ground. • There are about 16 000 species of bryophytes. They are common in moist, shaded areas. • Examples of Bryophytes: – Mosses, liverwarts, hornwarts 5/22/2017 15 2. The Ferns ( see p. 171) • Ex. ferns, whisk ferns, club mosses, horsetails. • They are vascular plants but still have primitive reproduction - use sperm to fertilize eggs so they are restricted to a moist habitat. • They also use spores to reproduce instead of seeds. Spore reproduction is more primitive than using seeds. • They have a dominant sporophyte generation. (the dominant generation is the one that is largest and lives longest). • A sporophyte most times refers to a plant that produces spores or pollen. • Seedless vascular plants were the first vascular plants to grow on Earth. These include ferns and their relatives. • These plants reproduce by spores. They are able to grow tall and survive in a variety of environments. • Examples include whisk ferns, club mosses, horsetails, and ferns. • Seed- producing vascular plants are divided into two main groups: gymnosperms (conifers and relatives) and angiosperms (flowering plants). • The seeds contain the embryo and a food supply. The embryo includes a root, a shoot, and one or two seed leaves. The seeds allow the plant to reproduce sexually without water. It also provides protection during the dormant period. 3. The Gymnosperms - ex. Conifers and evergreens • Name comes from the Greek word Gymnos which means naked seed. • This is because their seeds are not produced inside of fruits but are exposed for fertilization on opened female cones. • They are vascular plants. • They are seed producing plants with no flowers. • Their reproductive organs are cones. • Male cones produce pollen. • Female cones produce eggs. • Theses plants are not dependant on water for reproduction. • When fertilization is completed, theses plants produce seeds to complete reproduction. • They have a dominant sporophyte generation. – Conifers or Evergreens – A Tracheophyte (have vessels to move fluids) – Coniferous plants – Seeds are said to be naked and are born inside of cones – There are both male and female cones – Include pines, firs, spruces, hemlocks – Sometimes called “evergreens” because they do not tend to lose all their needles at one time – Leaves are needle-like or scale-like • Gymnosperms have roots, stems and leaves. The seeds are on the surface of the cones. • These include pines, firs, yew, spruce, cedars, redwood, and other large trees. • They are able to reproduce without water and they protect the stem from losing water by covering it with bark. • They have needle-like leaves with a thick, waxy covering to reduce evaporation. The shape also reduces water loss. The leaves are lost and replaced year round. By keeping their leaves, they are able to begin photosynthesis as soon as the weather becomes warmer. They also do not need to use energy to grow a complete set of new leaves. Examples of Gymnosperms • Black Spruce Cone 5/22/2017 / Foliage 22 • Eastern White Pine Cone and Tree 5/22/2017 23 • Jack Pine Tree and Cone 5/22/2017 24 4. The Angiosperms – The flowering plants - ex. roses, peas, magnolias, dandelions. • They have flowers. The flowers house the reproductive structures. • They are vascular plants. • They produce pollen for reproduction so are not dependant on water for reproduction. • Female ovaries produce eggs. • Male anthers produce pollen. • Produce seeds for reproduction. • Produce fruit to protect seeds. • They have a dominant sporophyte generation. – – – – – – – These are the flowering plants Also Tracheophytes Dominant type of vegetation on the Earth today Tend to have broad leaves Leaves are usually lost all at one time (Fall) Seeds are produced inside of fruit Fruit are produced from flowers • Angiosperms or flowering plants protect their seeds within fruits. • More than 75% of all plants are angiosperms. They include trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, vines and water plants. They grow everywhere on land. • There are two classes based on the number of seed leaves or cotyledons. Monocots have one seed leaf and include grasses, lilies, orchids, and irises. Dicots have two seed leaves and include roses, peas, cacti, daisies, and maple trees. Refer to the table on page 175 for more differences. • The main reason for the diversity of angiosperms is the flower which contains the reproductive organs for these plants. Examples of Angiosperms • Bird-of-Paradise Flower Variety of Fruit 5/22/2017 27 Why Angiosperms are the Most Diverse Plant Group – See p. 175-179 • Angiosperms are found in more places and have more species than any other plant group. This is because they have evolved better reproductive methods and adaptations that help reproduction. • Pollination - the means by which the male pollen of a plant gets to the female reproductive plant structure. • Flower - reproductive structures found in Angiosperm plants. Flowers contain the reproductive organs of the plant. Angiosperms have: 1. Better protection of the sexual organs and gametes. • Sexual organs are protected inside of the flower reproductive structures. This offers more protection than the gymnosperms. 2. Better methods of pollination. • The gymnosperms use only wind for pollination however pollination in Angiosperms is by many methods. The methods used varies with the species of angiosperm. Wind, insects, birds, bats and other animals take part in pollination in angiosperms. Flowers attract insects and animals by offering extra pollen and sugar - rich nectar as food. This is a mutualistic relationship - both the animals and the plants benefit. When the animals try to collect food, pollen is brushed onto their bodies the male reproductive structures of the flower. When the animal visits another flower, pollen on its body is brushed onto the top part of the female reproductive organ. • Adaptations to help pollination include flower scent, flower color and even mimicry. Most flowers are adapted to be only pollinated by a particular insect. Some flowers even resemble the mates insects to attract them (mimicry). • Mimicry - when an organism closely resembles another organism. Usually provides some type of survival advantage. 3. Better seed protection and dispersal • Angiosperm seeds are protected within a fruit structure of some sort. (unlike the gymnosperms). • Gymnosperm seeds are mainly spread by wind . Angiosperm seeds are spread by many methods: – A. wind dispersal - many seeds have parachutes (e.g. dandelion) or propellers (e.g. maple trees seeds) – B. Animal dispersal - some fruits are fleshy and are eaten by animals. Animals often carry the fruit away to eat it. When they do, this frees the seeds in a location far from the adult plant, cutting down on competition. Often, seeds are adapted to pass through the digestive system of an animal unharmed, landing in their own fertilizer! Some fruits are adapted to stick onto animals fur. Theses are called Burs . As the animal moves about, seeds are scattered. 4. Specialized tissues in Angiosperms to survive heat, cold and droughts. • succulents - these are plants which have tissue specialized for water storage. Plants such as cacti have tissues devoted to the storage of water to survive long periods of drought. Plants have a life cycle that consists of two generations: 1. Sporophyte generation • diploid (cells have pairs of chromosomes - DNA material) • produced by the fertilization of the female and male gamete • produce spores through mitosis 2. Gametophyte generation • haploid spores are produced by meiosis (cells have single chromosomes) • spores grow to become gametophytes (male and female) • gametophytes produce female and male gametes • Note: In non-vascular plants, the dominant generation is the gametophyte. In vascular plants, the sporophyte generation is dominant. Analyze and explain the life cycle of a sample organism from the Kingdom Plantae: “Fern” Fern life cycle • sporangium produce haploid spores which germinate to form a gametophyte called a prothallus • prothallus produces a male organ (antheridia) and a female organ (archegonia) • sperm from antheridia swim to egg in archegonia • diploid zygote is made • fertilized egg grows into a sporophyte • sporophyte matures and develops roots and fronds (branches) • sori (capsules) develop on pinnae (leaves) • spores form in sori by meiosis • refer to figure 6.9 on page 173 The Fern Life Cycle (ref. p 173, also fig. 6.9) -study diagram on p. 173. • reproduces sexually • life cycle consists of two generation: – 1. sporophyte – 2. gametophyte • • • • during the life cycle theses two generation alternate life cycle is carried out on the floor of temperate forests gametophyte generation is a heart-shaped prothallus prothallus contains male and female structures: – male structure - called antheridium ; produces sperm cells – female structure - called archegonium; each archegonium produces a single egg cell • The prothallus is the gametophyte generation. It is a tiny , heart - shaped structure no bigger than a nickel, living on the forest floor. • The prothallus has an antheridia and an archegonia. During wet conditions, prothalli (plural for prothallus) release male sperm cells which swim to the female archegonia, and fertilize the egg. This forms a zygote, which then grows right out of the archegonia to develop into a mature sporophyte fern plant. • The fern plant is the dominant body form in the alternation of generations. Later, ferns develop sori, spore producing structures on the underside of their fronds (a fern leaf is called a frond). Section 6.3 • Kingdom Animalia –p. 182 – 196 Animals are the largest of the 6 Kingdoms, and exhibit a great diversity in form and function. The study of animals is referred to as zoology. • General characteristics of members of the Kingdom Animalia: • • • • Cell Type: Eukaryotic Cell Wall: None Body Form: all are Multicellular Nutrition: Heterotrophic (ingestion) – Animals have more complex systems than plants. These systems are based on the animals nutrient requirements. The do not photosynthesize, they ingest their food. • Nervous System: Present. Varies among organisms. • Reproduction: This may be through sexual or asexual means. Asexual occurs in some lower forms, sexual occurs in all higher forms. • Locomotion: Yes. Most are motile at some point in their lifetime. • Animals are divided into two groups: – Vertebrates: with a backbone and 5% of animal kingdom. – Invertebrates - without a backbone and remainder of animals. • Examples of members from Kingdom Animalia: • • • • • • • • Mammals Birds Shellfish Insects Worms Jellyfish Sponges Starfish • Analyze and explain the life cycle of a sample organism from the Kingdom Animalia: “Frog” Frog life cycle • external fertilization where the female lays a cluster of eggs and male releases sperm on eggs • young tadpole develop from fertilized eggs • tadpoles have a tail from swimming and gills for respiring • older tadpoles start to develop legs • young frogs have well-developed legs but no tail • adult frogs are adapted for life on land • refer to figure 6.26 on page 193 • • • • • • Summary: External Fertilization, External Development Female lays cluster of eggs and the male releases sperm directly onto the egg cluster. The young tadpoles that hatch look very different from adults. They contain gills for respiring and have a tail for swimming. Older tadpoles start to develop legs. Young frogs have well-developed legs and has lost it’s tail. Adult frog is well adapted for life on land ALSO SEE HANDOUTS ON FROG LIFE CYCLE* Characteristics used to classify animals: 1. Body organization 2. Presence of digestive tract 3. Number of germ layers 4. Internal body cavity (coelum) 5. Body symmetry • The number of germ layers refers to the layers of cells. All animals except for two have three germ layers. • These are the ectoderm (outer layer), endoderm (inner layer) and the mesoderm (middle layer). • In humans, the ectoderm produces skin, nerve tissue and some sense organs. • The endoderm produces the lungs, liver, pancreas, bladder, and stomach lining. • The mesoderm produces the muscles, blood, kidneys and reproductive organs. • The body symmetry involves the determination of the front or head end, the back or tail end, the dorsal (back) section, and the ventral (belly) section. • It determines the direction that the animal moves. • Sponges have shapes that are irregular or asymmetrical. • Most animals have symmetrical body plans which are regular. There are two types of symmetry in animals: 1. Radial symmetry is in animals with their bodies organized equally around a central vertical axis. These move in horizontal directions around its centre. They can be divided equally through the centre in many different vertical planes. 2. Bilateral symmetry occurs when only one cut can produce two equal, mirror-image halves. • A coelom is a fluid filled body cavity that holds the digestive tract and other organs. • Animals with coeloms are called coelomates while those without a coelom are called acoelomates. • The coelom provides rigidity and the development of more complex organ systems. • Refer to Table 6.2 on page 183 to 184 for the characteristics of the first 7 phylums. Phylum Arthropoda • 1. Most biologically successful and abundant animal group on earth. • 2. There are more arthropod species than all other species combined. • 3. There are 1 million known species. • 4. Symmetry is bilateral. • 5. Small coelom. • 6. Jointed appendages for efficient locomotion. 7. Exoskeleton that provides: (a) protection of internal organs (b) waterproof covering allowing many to live on dry land (so they do not dry out) 8. Segmented body with parts modified and fused to form specific body regions: (a) head - anterior (b) thorax - middle (c) abdomen - posterior 9. Possess a variety of well developed systems: • a) Digestive • • • • • • b) Respiratory c) Excretory d) Reproductive e) Skeletal f) Circulatory - open system g) Nervous - well developed with the following features: (i) distinct brain (ii) ventral nerve cord (iii) sense organs such as eyes, auditory organs, sensory bristles, and antennae that touch and sense chemicals 10. The most successful class is class Insecta with 900,000 known species. • Nearly all are terrestrial with a few freshwater and saltwater forms • Size range is broad; from 0.25 mm for some species of beetles and up to 30 cm for some tropical moths The success of insects is credited to the following reasons: • (1) They are the only invertebrates capable of flying. This allows them to move over great distances to find food, escape predators, and spread to new environments. • (2) There is tremendous variation in how they are adapted for feeding and reproduction, so they can exist in all kinds of environments and obtain nourishment from many sources. More Reasons • (3) High rate of reproduction and short life cycle. This increases the ability of insects to adapt. • (4) Small in size. This means they don’t need large areas to live. • (5) Social insects • (6) Variations in body form • Describe the differences that exist between the invertebrate phyla (symmetry, body cavity, reproduction, digestion). • Describe the differences that exist between the vertebrate taxa (symmetry, body cavity, circulation, respiration, reproduction, and endoskeleton). *SEE TABLE HANDOUT*