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CHAPTER 4: ECOSYSTEMS:
COMPONENTS, ENERGY FLOW AND
MATTER CYCLING
Also some carry over from chapter 3 is in
this chapter
Slide 1
Ecology
• The scientific study of relationships between
organisms and their environment
• Examines the life histories, distribution, and behavior
of individual species, as well as the structure and
function of natural systems at the level of
populations, communities, ecosystems, and
landscapes
• Encourages us to think holistically about
interconnections that make whole systems more
than just the sum of their individual parts
• Examines how and why materials cycle between the
living and nonliving parts of our environment
Slide 2
Periodic Table of the Elements
Slide 3
• Ionic Bond - Formed when one atom gives
up an electron to another atom.
• Covalent Bond - Formed when two or more
atoms share electrons.
– Energy is needed to break chemical bonds.
– Energy is released when bonds are formed.
Chemical
Bonding
Slide 4
Fig. 2.4
Slide 5
Protein
construction
Nucleus
(information storage)
Energy
conversion
(b) Prokaryotic Cell
Cell wall & membrane
(transport of
raw materials)
DNA
(information
storage, no
nucleus)
Protein construction
Packaging
and energy conversion
occur without specialized
(a)
internal structures
Cell membrane
(transport of raw
materials and
finished products)
Eukaryotic Cell
Figure 4-3 (1)
Page 67
Slide 6
Cells: The Fundamental Units of Life
• Microscopic organisms, such as bacteria and
protozoa, are composed of single cells.
• The human body contains several trillion cells of
about two hundred distinct types.
• Enzymes – catalysts that speed up the rate of
chemical reactions in living systems
• Metabolism - all the energy and matter exchanges
that occur within a living cell or organism
Slide 7
Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds
• Most material substances can exist in three
interchangeable states: solid, liquid, or gas.
• Element - substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by ordinary chemical reactions.
Just four elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen - make up over 96% of the mass of most
organisms.
• Atom - the smallest particle that exhibits the
characteristics of an element
• Molecule - a combination of two or more atoms
• Compound - a molecule made up of two or more
kinds of atoms held together by chemical bonds
Slide 8
• Acids are compounds that readily release
hydrogen ions (H+) in water.
• Bases are substances that readily take up
hydrogen ions (H+) and release hydroxide
ions (OH-) in solution.
• Strength measured by concentration of H+.
– pH scale
• 0-14
Acids and
Bases
Slide 9
Fig. 2.5
Slide 10
Levels of organization interaction.
Click to view
animation.
Animation
Slide 11
MUST KNOW DEFINITIONS FROM INDIVIDUAL UP
• Organism
• Species is group of organisms that interbreeds and
produces fertile offspring.
• Population is a group of individual organisms of the
same species living in a particular area.
• Community is the populations of all species living
and interacting in an area at a particular time.
• Ecosystem is a community of different species
interacting with one another and with the chemical
and physical factors making up its nonliving
environment.
Slide 12
Solar
radiation
Energy in = Energy out
Reflected by
atmosphere (34%)
Radiated by
atmosphere
as heat (66%)
UV radiation
Absorbed
by ozone
Lower stratosphere
(ozone layer)
Visible
Greenhouse
light
Troposphere
effect
Heat
Absorbed
by the earth
Heat radiated
by the earth
Earth
Figure 4-8
Page 69
Slide 13
Coastal chaparral
and scrub
Coastal
mountain
ranges
15,000 ft
10,000 ft
5,000 ft
Coniferous
forest
Sierra
Nevada
Mountains
Desert
Great
American
Desert
Coniferous
forest
Rocky
Mountains
Prairie
grassland
Deciduous
forest
Mississippi
Great
River Valley
Plains
Appalachian
Mountains
Average annual precipitation
100-125 cm (40-50 in.)
75-100 cm (30-40 in.)
50-75 cm (20-30 in.)
25-50 cm (10-20 in.)
Below 25 cm (0-10 in.)
Figure 4-9
Page 70
Slide 14
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Aquatic Life Zones
• Sunlight
• Light penetration
• Temperature
• Water currents
• Precipitation
• Dissolved nutrient
concentrations
(especially N and P)
• Wind
• Latitude (distance from
equator)
• Altitude (distance above
sea level)
• Suspended solids
• Salinity
• Fire frequency
• Soil
Figure 4-12
Page 72
Slide 15
Sun
Producers (rooted plants)
Producers (phytoplankton)
Primary consumers (zooplankton)
Secondary consumers (fish)
Dissolved
chemicals
Tertiary consumers
(turtles)
Sediment
Decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
Figure 4-10
Page 71
Slide 16
Oxygen (O2)
Sun
Producer
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Primary consumer
(rabbit)
Falling leaves
Precipitation
and twigs
Secondary consumer
(fox)
Producers
Soil decomposers
Water
Soluble mineral nutrients
Figure 4-11
Page 71
Slide 17
Heat
First Trophic
Level
Second Trophic
Level
Third Trophic
Level
Fourth Trophic
Level
Producers
(plants)
Primary
consumers
(herbivores)
Secondary
consumers
(carnivores)
Tertiary
consumers
(top carnivores)
Heat
Heat
Heat
Solar
energy
Heat Heat
Heat
Heat
Detritivores
(decomposers and detritus feeders)
Heat
Figure 4-17
Page 76
Slide 18
Detritus feeders
Bark beetle
engraving
Long-horned
beetle holes
Carpenter
ant
galleries
Decomposers
Termite and
carpenter
ant
work
Dry rot fungus
Wood
reduced
to powder
Time progression
Mushroom
Powder broken down by decomposers
into plant nutrients in soil
Figure 4-15
Page 75
Slide 19
Heat
Heat
Tertiary
consumers
(human)
Decomposers
Heat
10
Secondary
consumers
(perch)
100
1,000
10,000
Usable energy
available at
each tropic level
(in kilocalories)
Heat
Primary
consumers
(zooplankton)
Heat
Producers
(phytoplankton)
Figure 4-19
Page 78
Slide 20
Human
Blue whale
Sperm whale
Killer
whale
Elephant
seal
Crabeater seal
Leopard
seal
Emperor
penguin
Adélie
penguins
Petrel
Squid
Fish
Carnivorous plankton
Herbivorous
zooplankton
Krill
Phytoplankton
Figure 4-18
Page 77
Slide 21
• Productivity depends on light levels,
temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability.
• Primary productivity - a community’s rate of
biomass production, or the conversion of solar
energy into chemical energy stored in living (or
once-living organisms)
• Net primary productivity - primary productivity
minus the energy lost in respiration
Part 4: Community
Properties
Slide 22
Figure 4-21
Page 79
Slide 23
Relative biomass accumulation
of major world ecosystems.
Slide 24
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE
Structure can be thought of as:
Physical – for example the diameter of trees, canopy cover and layers of vegetation
or tree partitioning by various animal species such as finches.
Spatial patterns – populations dispersed randomly, clumped or uniformly.
Biodiversity
Abundance - the number of individuals of a species in an area
Richness - the number of different species in an area shich is a useful measure of
the variety of ecological niches or genetic variation in a community. It decreases
as we go from the equator towards the poles
Genetic – gene frequency; number of alleles, etc.
Habitat changes – frequency of habitat changes through a fixed distance
Trophic level complexity – number of food chains (webs) in a system
Number and types of services provided by natural capital – for example water
purification
Productivity
Slide 25
Biosphere
Carbon
cycle
Phosphorus
cycle
Nitrogen
cycle
Water
cycle
Oxygen
cycle
Heat in the environment
Heat
Heat
Heat
Figure 4-7
Page 69
Slide 26
Condensation
Transpiration
from plants
Precipitation
Precipitation
to ocean
Rain clouds
Transpiration
Precipitation
Evaporation
Evaporation
From
ocean
Surface runoff
(rapid)
Surface runoff (rapid)
Runoff
Infiltration and
percolation
Groundwater movement (slow)
Ocean storage
Groundwater movement (slow)
Figure 4-23
Page 81
Slide 27
Carbon cycle animation.
Click to view
animation.
Animation
Slide 28
diffusion between
atmosphere and ocean
combustion of fossil
fuels
Carbon dioxide
dissolved in
ocean water
photosynthesis
aerobic
respiration
Marine food webs
producers, consumers,
decomposers, detritivores
incorporation
death,
into sediments sedimentation
Marine sediments, including
formations with fossil fuels
uplifting over
geologic
time
sedimentation
Figure 4-24 (1)
Page 82
Slide 29
Atmosphere
(mainly carbon dioxide)
volcanic action
Terrestrial
rocks
weathering
photosynthesis
aerobic
respiration
Land food webs
combustion of
wood (for clearing
land; or for fuel
sedimentation
producers, consumers,
decomposers, detritivores
Soil water
(dissolved carbon)
leaching
runoff
death, burial, compaction
over geologic time
Peat,
fossil fuels
Figure 4-24 (2)
Page 83
Slide 30
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
Gaseous Nitrogen (N2)
In Atmosphere
Nitrogen
Fixation
by industry for
agriculture
Food Webs
On Land
Fertilizers
Nitrogen Fixation
bacteria convert to ammonia
(NH3+) ; this dissolves to
form ammonium (NH4+)
uptake by
autotrophs
excretion,
death,
decomposition
Nitrogenous Wastes,
Remains In Soil
Ammonification
NH3, NH4+
in soil
bacteria, fungi convert the
residues to NH3 , this
uptake by
autotrophs
NO3 –
in soil
Denitrification
by bacteria
2. Nitrification
bacteria convert NO2- to
nitrate (NO3-)
dissolves to form NH4+
loss by
leaching
1. Nitrification
bacteria convert NH4+
to nitrate (NO2–)
NO2 –
in soil
loss by
leaching
Figure 4-25
Page 84
Slide 31
The nigtrogen cycle animation.
Click to view
animation.
Animation
Slide 32
Nitrogen Fixation
The nodules on the roots
of this plant contain
bacteria that help convert
nitrogen in the soil to a
form the plant can utilize.
Slide 33
mining
excretion
FERTILIZER
GUANO
agriculture
uptake by
autotrophs
MARINE
FOOD
WEBS
weathering
DISSOLVED
IN OCEAN
WATER
uptake by
autotrophs
weathering
DISSOLVED IN
SOIL WATER,
LAKES, RIVERS
death,
decomposition
sedimentation
MARINE SEDIMENTS
LAND
FOOD
WEBS
death,
decomposition
settling
out
weathering
uplifting
over geolgic
time
ROCKS
Figure 4-26
Page 86
Slide 34
Phosphorus cycle interaction.
Click to view
animation.
Animation
Slide 35
Sulfur cycle animation.
Click to view
animation.
Animation
Slide 36
Water
Acidic fog and precipitation
Sulfuric acid
Sulfur trioxide
Ammonia
Oxygen
Sulfur dioxide
Ammonium sulfate
Hydrogen sulfide
Plants
Volcano
Dimethyl sulfide
Animals
Industries
Ocean
Sulfate salts
Metallic
sulfide
deposits
Decaying matter
Sulfur
Hydrogen sulfide
Figure 4-27
Page 87
Slide 37
Critical nesting site
locations
USDA Forest Service
USDA
Forest Service
Private owner 1
Private owner 2
Topography
Habitat type
Forest
Wetland
Lake
Grassland
Real world
Figure 4-28
Page 88
Slide 38
Slide 39
Slide 40