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Transcript
Essentials of Ecology 3rd. Ed. Chap. 10 patterns in species richness 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 生物科技學系 生態學 (2008) Patterns in species richness • 10.1 introduction • 10.2 a simple model of species richness • 10.3 spatially varying factors that influence species richness • 10.4 temporally varying factors that influence species richness • 10.5 gradients of species richness • 10.6 patterns in taxon richness in the fossil record • 10.7 appraisal of patterns in species richness 2 Introduction (10.1 Quantitative aspects) • Diversity indices – Shannon-Weaver diversity index • H=-∑Pi lnPi Fig. 10.1 Species diversity (H) declined progressively in a plot of pasture that regularity received fertilizer in an experiment commencing in 1856 at Rothamsted in England. 3 Introduction (10.1 Quantitative aspects) • Rank-abundance diagrams Fig. 10.2 Change in the rank-abundance pattern of plant species in the Rothamstead fertilized plot from 1856 to 1949. 4 10.2 a simple model of species richness 資源較多 • Fig. 10.3 a simple model of species richness. Niche較小 重疊較多 5 10.3 Spatially varying factors that influence species richness • • • • 10.3.1 Productivity 10.3.2 Predation intensity 10.3.3 Spatial heterogeneity 10.3.4 Environmental harshness 6 10.4 Temporally varying factors that influence species richness • 10.4.1 Climatic variation • 10.4.2 Disturbance • 10.4.3 Environmental age: evolutionary time 7 • Fig. 10.5 species richness of (a) birds, (b) mammals, (c) amphibians in North America in relation to potential evapotranspiration. 8 • Fig. 10.6 relationships between species richness and productivity 9 • Fig. 10.7 Paine’s rocky shore community. From 15 species to 8 species 10 10.2 Topical ECOncerns • Using exploiter-mediated coexistence to assist grassland restoration Fig. 10.8 hemiparasite Rhinanthus minor 11 (c) Relationship between animal species richness and an index of structural diversity of vegetation for freshwater fish. • Fig. 10.9 (a) relationship between the number of plants species and an index of spatial heterogeneity. 12 • Fig. 10.10 (a) the number of plant species in the Alaskan Arctic tundra increases with soil pH • (b) the number of taxa of invertebrates in streams 13 with the pH of stream water. • Fig. 10.11 (a) Pattern in species richness with which they are disturbed frequently (F), intermediate (I) or rarely disturbed (R) • (b) relationship between insect species richness and intensity of disturbance. 14 10.5 Gradients of species richness • • • • 10.5.1 island biogeography 10.5.2 Latitudinal gradients 10.5.3 Gradients with altitude and depth 10.5.4 Gradients during community succession • 10.6 Patterns in taxon richness in the fossil record 15 生態保育的策略 鄭先祐 生態主張者:Ayo 工作室 17 Fig. 8 Equilibrium models of biotas of several islands of varying distances from the principal source area and of varying size. 18 Fig.5a. The Galapagos Islands 19 Fig. 5b. Number of land-plant species on the Galapagos islands in relation to the area of the island. S= 28.6A 0.32 20 Fig. 6. Species-area curve for the amphibians and reptiles of the West Indies. S= 3.3A 0.30 21 Fig. 9. Island biogeography applied to mountaintops. (b) Species-area relationship for the resident boreal birds of the mountaintops in the Great Basin. 22 Fig. 9. Island biogeography applied to mountaintops. (c) Species-area relationship for the boreal mammal species. 23 Fig. 10 Colonization curves of four small mangroves islands in the lower Florida Keys, whose entire faunas, consisting almost solely of arthropods, were exterminated by methyl bromide fumigation. 24 1960年代的島嶼生物地理學 原則: • (1) 愈大愈好。 • (2)不要切割。 • (3)切割後,每塊間的距離愈近愈好。 • (4)周長/面積,要愈小愈好。 25 Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of some principles for the design of nature reserves. 26 1960-1980:相關學科的發展 • (1) 大陸飄移。 • (2) 分子生物技術於系統分類學的應用。 • (3) MacArthur and Wilson (1963, 1967): 島嶼生物地理學的平衡理論。 • (4) Vicariance 生物地理學。 1980年以後,the study of biodiversity。 27 Fig. 11. Baja California 28 表1. Cortez 海域島嶼間生物地理之比較。 項 目 50km2 之海洋島嶼 所含之平均數 陸橋性島嶼比海洋性島 嶼含有更多的種類? 陸生 沿岸 植物 魚類 105 13 9.3 3.5 1.3 No No Yes Yes Very Yes No 有一 點 Yes Yes Very Yes No No No No No 有一點 No No No No No No No No No Yes 有一點 0 2 0 0 0 0 5 35 0 47 16 69 No 島嶼上所含之種類比大 陸塊上還少嗎? Holocene才出現之海洋 性島嶼所含的種類數比 老生島嶼還少嗎? 距大陸愈遠,種類數愈 少嗎?陸橋性島嶼 海洋性島嶼 特有性:陸橋性島嶼 海洋性島嶼 陸棲 陸棲 蜥蜴 陸棲 鳥類 爬蟲 哺乳 Yes 29 Fig. 13. 島嶼生物地理學(修改自Case & Code, 1987) 30 • Fig. 10.14 (b) Proportion of variance in species richness, for four animal groups, related to island area (blue), to habitat diversity (orange), to correlated variation between area and habitat diversity (green) and unexplained by either (maroon). 31 當代的切割理論與生物保育策略 「一大」或是「多小」? • (1) maximizes the mean size of reserves • (2) maximizes the number of reserves 32 Fig. 4. The distribution of areas of nature reserves in the world. 33 Fig. 14. Diagram of experimental design. Plots with solid edges represent enclosures preventing access by sheep. Broken lines mark delineated plots in the grazed area. 34 表2. 於不同大小面積之隔離區與牧養區內,顯花植物的種 類數之比較。 隔離區 牧養區 項目 小型 中型 大型 小型 中型 大型 N 32 8 2 16 4 1 總數 29 26 20 26 16 15 最多/各區 15 15 15 13 12 (15) 最少/各區 3 8 15 5 8 (15) 全區 34種 26種 35 表3. 各型樣區的種類數目之變化。 項 目 種類1985 1986 1987 遺失種類 1985-1986 1986-1987 新增種類 1985-1986 1986-1987 小型 中型 大型 全部 29 30 33 26 27 29 20 20 25 34 33 40 4 2 5 3 3 2 5 1 5 5 6 5 3 7 4 6 36 海洋性島嶼 離岸200公里以上 Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos. a. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islands b. Galapagos land birds c. Galapagos Darwin's finches d. Galapagos ferns. 37 Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic 海洋性島嶼 archipelagos. e. Galapagos insects 離岸200公里以上 f. Galapagos flowering plants g. Caribbean bats. h. Facroes islands ground beetles. 38 海洋性島嶼 離岸200公里以上 Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos. g. Caribbean bats. h. Facroes islands ground beetles. i.. Canary Islands birds j. Canary island ground beetles. 39 沿岸島嶼 離岸100KM以內 Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores archipelagos. a. Seabirds on islands off of Scotland. b. Extant marsupials on islands in the Bass Straits. c. Reptiles on islands in the Bass Straits. d. Sand dune mammals on islands in the Bass Straits. 40 沿岸島嶼 離岸100KM以內 Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshore archipelagos. e. Birds of the California Channel islands. f. Reptiles and amphibians of the California Channel islands. g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California. h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California. 41 沿岸島嶼 離岸100KM以內 Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores archipelagos. g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California. h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California. i. Reptiles and amphibians of the islands in the Gulf of California. 42 陸域隔離區 Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates. a. Mammals of East African national parks. b. Birds of East African national parks. c. Mountaintop small mammals. d. Mountaintop plants. 43 陸域隔離區 Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates. e. Mountaintop birds f. Birds in New Jersey woodlots g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves. h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves. 44 陸域隔離區 Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates. g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves. h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves. i. Mammals of U.S. national parks. 45 Fig. 19 Effect of anthropogenic extinctions on cumulative species-area curves for two island groups. a. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islands b. Extant and fossil birds of the Hawaiian islands. c. Marsupials on island in the Bass Strait. d. Marsupials on island in the Bass Strait. 46 切割棲息地後,所含的生物種類數反而增加,可能的 原因: • 1. Habitat diversity • 2. Population dynamics. – Priority effects – Multiple stable equilibria – Edge effects – Disturbance – Species pool and dispersal ability. – Colonization – Evolutionary effects. – Extinctions. • 3. Historical effects. 47 10.5.2 Latitudinal gradients • Fig. 10.17 Latitudinal patterns in species richness 48 • Fig. 10.17 Latitudinal patterns in species richness 49 10.5.3 Gradients with altitude and depth Fig. 10.18 (a) Breeding birds in Nepalese Himalayas (b) plants in the Sierra Manantlan, Mexico. 50 Fig. 10.18 (c) ants in Lee Canyon in the Spring Mountains of Nevada, USA. (d) flowering plants in the Nepalese Himalayas. 51 • Fig. 10.19 Depth gradient in species richness of bottom-dwelling vertebrates and invertebrates (fish, decapods, holothurians, asteroids) in the ocean southwest of ireland. 52 10.5.4 Gradients during community succession • Fig. 10.20 Examples of increases in animal species richness during succession (a) bird species richness in tropical rain forest in northeast India. 53 • Fig. 10.20 Examples of increases in animal species richness during succession (b) the species richness of true bugs increased with time after an English farm field was taken out of cultivation. 54 10.6 Patterns in taxon richness in the fossil record • Fig. 20.21 Patterns in taxon richness through the fossil record. 55 • Fig. 20.21 Patterns in taxon richness through the fossil record. 56 • Fig. 20.21 Patterns in taxon richness through the fossil record. 57 • Fig. 10.22 (a) the percentage of genera of large mammalian herbivores that have gone extinct in the last 130,000 years is strongly sizedependent. 58 • Fig. 10.22 (b) percentage survival of large animals on three continents and two large islands. The dramatic declines in taxon richness in Australia, North America and the island of New Zealand and Madagascar occurred at different times in history. 59 10.7 Appraisal of patterns in species richness • Richness may peak at intermediate levels of available environmental energy or of disturbance frequency. • Richness declines with a reduction in island area or an increase in island remoteness • Richness decreases with increasing latitude, and declines or shows a hump-backed relationship with altitude or depth in the ocean. • Richness increases with an increase in spatial heterogeneity but may decrease with an increase in temporal heterogeneity. 60 The flood of exotic species • Fig. 10.23 the alien flora of the British isles (a) according to community type. • (b) by geographic origin. 61 • Fig. 10.23 the alien flora of the British isles (a) according to community type. • (b) by geographic origin. 62 Review questions 1. Explain species richness, diversity index and rankabundance diagrams and compare what each measures. 2. Why is it so difficult to identify ‘harsh’ environments? 3. Researchers have reported a variety of hump-shaped patterns in species richness, with peaks of richness occurring at intermediate levels of productivity, predation pressure, disturbance and depth in the ocean. Review the evidence and consider whether these patterns have any underlying mechanisms in common. 63 問題與討論 [email protected] Ayo 台南站 http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/ 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 Ayo 院長的個人網站