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Chap. 7 Community Ecology 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立台南大學 環境與生態學院 2008年2月至6月 1 Types of Interaction Between Two Species neutralism competition, direct interference type amensalism ( -- 0 ) commensalism ( + 0 ) parasitism ( + -- ) predation ( + -- ) protocooperation ( + + ) (not obligatory) mutualism ( + + ) (obligatory) chap. 7. community ecology 2 Table 7-1 chap. 7. community ecology 3 Fig. 7-1. coordinate model of two-species interactions chap. 7. community ecology 4 Growth equation model dN/dt = rN – (r/K)N2 – CN2N Growth rate = unlimited rate – selfcrowding effects – detrimental effects of the other species chap. 7. community ecology 5 2 Coevolution Coevolution is a type of community evolution. Coevolution is the joint evolution of two or more noninterbreeding species that have a close ecological relationship, such as plants and herbivores, large organisms and their microorganism symbionts, or parasites and their hosts. Through reciprocal selective pressures, the evolution of one species in the relationship depends in part on the evolution of the other. chap. 7. community ecology 6 3 Evolution and Cooperation: Group Selection group selection, is defined as natural selection between groups or assemblages of organisms that are not necessarily closely liked by mutualistic associations. Group selection leads to the maintenance of traits favorable to groups that may be selectively disadvantageous to genetic carriers within populations. chap. 7. community ecology 7 4 Interspecific Competition and Coexistence Interspecific competition Interference competition Exploitation competition Competitive exclusion principle Gause principle chap. 7. community ecology 8 Fig. 7-2. Competition between two closely related species of protozoa that have similar niches. chap. 7. community ecology 9 Fig. 7-3. The case of coexistence in populations of clover (Trifolium) (紅花 草、苜蓿) chap. 7. community ecology 10 The logistic equation dNi/dt = riNi (1-Ni/Ki) dNi/dt = riNi (1-Ni/Ki - aijNj/Ki) dNj/dt = rjNj (1-Nj/Kj - ajiNi/Kj) at equilibrium (Ki - Ni - aijNj) / Ki = 0 (Kj - Nj - ajiNi) / Kj = 0 chap. 7. community ecology (21-3) (21-4) 11 Fig. 21-4 (b) Ki - Ni - aijNj = 0 (c) Kj - Nj - ajiNi = 0 二元一次方程式 Ni 和 Nj chap. 7. community ecology 12 Fig. 21-5 Graphic representation f the equilibrium conditions for two species of which species i is the better competitor. chap. 7. community ecology 13 Fig. 21-6 The course of competition between two populations. chap. 7. community ecology 14 Fig. 21-7 (a) conditions for the stable coexistence of two competing species. (b) outcome of competition between two species that are both more strongly limited by interspecific competition than by intraspecific competition. The populations tend to diverge from the equilibrium point. chap. 7. community ecology 15 請應用Lotka-Volterra model 預測兩種相互競爭的族 群, 其間競爭的最後結果。假設甲族群對乙族群的 競爭系數是β; 乙族群對甲族群的競爭系數是α; 甲 族群的族群數量是N1; 而其承載量是K1; 乙族群的 族群數量是N2; 而其承載量是K2。起初時, 甲族群 數量是50, 乙族群有90。請按下列(4與5題)的數值, 寫出甲乙族群最後的數量(N1, N2)。 ※同時必要寫出其相關的計算過程,才可得分。公式 如下(參考用): ※ dN1/dt = r1N1 (k1 - N1 - αN2)/K1 , ※ dN2/dt = r2N2 (k2 - N2 - βN1)/K2 。 chap. 7. community ecology 16 計算出其結果 (1) 若 α=1.2 β=0.8 K1 =200 K2 =200, (2) 若 α=0.8 β=1.2 K1 =160 K2 =250, (3) 若 α=1.4 β=1.4 K1 =260 K2 =260, 期末考題範例 chap. 7. community ecology 17 Fig. 7-4. (A) Factors that control the distribution of two species of barnacles in an intertidal gradient. chap. 7. community ecology 18 Fig. 7-4. (B) an example of an intertidal zone. chap. 7. community ecology 19 Fig. 7-5. the effect of competition on habitat distribution. When intraspecific competition dominates, the species spreads out and occupies less favorable areas, Where interspecific competition is intense, the species tends to be restricted to a narrower range, representing the optimum conditions. chap. 7. community ecology 20 Fig. 22-25 The phenomenon of character displacement. chap. 7. community ecology 21 Fig. 22-26 Proportions of individuals with breaks of different sizes in populations of ground finches on several of the Galapagos islands. chap. 7. community ecology 22 5 Positive/Negative Interactions: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, and Alleopathy Predation and parasitism Hervivory Alleopathy chap. 7. community ecology 23 Examples Deer populations are often cited as examples of populations that tend to irrupt when predator pressure is reduced. The most violent irruptions occur when a species is introduced into a new area. Negative interactions become less negative with time if the ecosystem is sufficiently stable and spatially diverse to allow reciprocal adaptations. chap. 7. community ecology 24 Fig. 7-6. Evolution of coexistence in the hostparasite relationship between house fly and parasitic wasp populations in a laboratory investigation. chap. 7. community ecology 25 Chestnut tree and fungus chap. 7. community ecology 26 Fig. 7-8. The plot on the left was sprayed with insecticide for eight years and is dominated by a dense stand of the goldenrod. Surrounding plots were left as unsprayed controls. Outbreak of the chrysomelid beetle occur every 5-15 years. chap. 7. community ecology 27 Fig. 7-9. Biomass and yield in test populations of the guppy exploited at different rates at three different diet levels. The highest yields were obtained when about one third of chap. 7. community ecology the population was harvested per reproductive period 28 Fig. 7-10. (A) Aerial view of aromatic shrubs Salvia leucophylla and Artemisia californica invading an annual grassland in the Santa Inez Valley of California and exhibiting biochemical inhibition. chap. 7. community ecology 29 Close-up showing the zonation effect of volatile toxins produced by Salvia shrubs seen to the center-left of A. Between A and B is a zone 2 meters wide, bare of all herbs except for a few minute, inhibited seedlings. Between B and C is a zone of inhibited grassland. chap. 7. community ecology 30 Table 7-2 chap. 7. community ecology 31 6 Positive Interactions: Commensalism, Cooperation, and Mutualism commensalism – one population benefits protocooperation – both benefit mutualism – both benefit and completely dependent on each other obligate symbiosis Coprophagy = reingestion of feces chap. 7. community ecology 32 The effects of agricultural tillage (犁耕) on the mycorrhizal soil community chap. 7. community ecology 33 螞蟻與金合歡(acacia)喬木 chap. 7. community ecology 34 Fig. 7-12. Peritrophic mycorrhizae forming clusters or asses around the roots of a spruce seeding. chap. 7. community ecology 35 針葉樹與根瘤菌 左邊的沒有根 瘤菌共生, 右邊的有根瘤 菌共生。 chap. 7. community ecology 36 Fig. 7-12 (B) Principal nitrogen fixer among the epiphytic lichens in the forest canopy community is Lobaria oregana. chap. 7. community ecology 37 地衣 (lichens) 地衣類,是藻類與真菌類共生的結果。 因為兩者的關係非常密切,所以被認為 可視為單一物種。 chap. 7. community ecology 38 7 Concepts of Habitat, Ecological Niche, and Guild Habitat Ecological niche, fundamental niche Spatial niche, trophic niche, multidimensional niche Niche breadth, niche overlap Ecologically equivalent species Guilds chap. 7. community ecology 39 Fig. 7-13. Schematic representations of the niche concept. (A) Activity curves for two species along a single resource dimension illustrate the concepts of niche breadth and niche overlap. chap. 7. community ecology 40 chap. 7. community ecology 41 Table 7-4 chap. 7. community ecology 42 8 Biodiversity Diversity = richness + apportionment (evenness) Diversity Pattern diversity Genetic diversity Habitat diversity Two approaches Dominance-diversity (relative abundance) curves Diversity indices chap. 7. community ecology 43 Fig. 7-14. Latitudinal gradient in numbers of species of (A) breeding land birds. chap. 7. community ecology 44 Fig. 7-14. Latitudinal gradient in numbers of species of (B) ants. chap. 7. community ecology 45 Fig. 7-15. Dominance-diversity profiles for three parallel streams in the same watershed that differ in their degree of pollution by urban domestic wastes. chap. 7. community ecology 46 Fig. 7-16. Diagram depicting a stream degraded by point-source raw sewage, 47 7. community ecology illustrating decreased species chap. diversity and increased population density. Fig. 7-17. The effect of a single application of the insecticide. chap. 7. community ecology 48 Table 7-5 chap. 7. community ecology 49 Biodiversity and stability The relationship between species diversity and stability is complex. A positive relationship may be secondary and not causal, in that stable ecosystems promote high diversity but not necessarily the other way around. Species is very much influenced by the functional relationships between trophic levels. • Moderate predation may increase diversity. chap. 7. community ecology 50 Pattern diversity Stratification patterns (vertical layering) Zonation patterns (horizontal segregation) Activity patterns (periodicity) Food web patterns (network organization) Reproductive patterns (parent-offspring) Social patterns (flocks and herds) Coactive patterns (resulting from competition, antibiosis, or mutualism) Stochastic patterns (resulting from random forces) chap. 7. community ecology 51 Biodiversity and productivity In low-nutrient natural environments, an increase in biodiversity seems to enhance productivity. In high-nutrient or enriched environments, an increase in productivity increases dominance and reduces diversity. Hypothesis Diversity-productivity hypothesis Diversity-stability hypothesis chap. 7. community ecology 52 Concern about the loss of biodiversity Keystone species Gene resources, genetic diversity Diversity be affected by 1. 2. 3. 4. Weather, insects and disease Technology Demand Human preferences chap. 7. community ecology 53 chap. 7. community ecology 54 9 Paleoecology: Community Structure in Past Ages Paleoecology, is the study of the relationships of ancient flora and fauna to their environment. The basic assumptions The operation of ecological principles has been essentially the same throughout various geological periods The ecology of fossils may be inferred from what is known about equivalent or related species now living chap. 7. community ecology 55 The number of pollen grains of each species group Fig. 7-19. Fossil pollen profiles from dated layers in lake sediment cores from southern New England. Estimated rate of pollen deposition for each plant chap. 7. community ecology 56 10 From Populations and Communities to Ecosystems and Landscapes Holistic approach vs. reductionist approach chap. 7. community ecology 57 Holistic approach chap. 7. community ecology 58 Fig. 7-21. Diagram showing the linkages among oak trees, deer, white-footed mice, ticks, gypsy moths, and humans in northeastern US forests. chap. 7. community ecology 59 Fig. 7-22. Aerial photograph of experimental ponds located at the Miami University of Ohio Ecology Research Center. chap. 7. community ecology 60 Fig. 7-24. (A) Fall migration of the eastern populations of the monarch butterfly. chap. 7. community ecology 61 Fig. 7-24. (B) Spring migration of the eastern populations of the monarch butterfly, including the spring breeding area. chap. 7. community ecology 62 問題與討論 [email protected] Ayo 台南站:http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/ chap. 7. community ecology 63