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Aegean Beginnings • Geography– southern tip of Balkan Peninsula in southern Europe and surrounding islands • Interior mountain ranges and fertile coasts and valleys • Short, swift rivers • Mild climate with moderate temperatures, low humidity and limited rainfall Aegean Civilizations • a) b) c) d) The Minoans of Crete (2500-1450 BC) Island kingdom on Crete Knossos was capital city; home of King Minos Advanced culture with extensive sea trade Greater gender equality; much emphasis on social and athletic activities e) Religion based on Earth Mother goddess f) Reached peak around 1600 BC, fell soon afterward—reason unknown Aegean Civilizations (cont) • The Mycenaeans of the Balkans a) Indo-European group that migrated down from central Asia around 2000 BC b) Intermarried with indigenous Hellenes over time, established series of kingdoms c) Kingdoms surrounding a hilltop fortress; wealthy estates d) Contact with Minoans; adopted many Minoan customs (religion, metalworking, etc) Aegean Civilizations (cont) e) Eventually conquered Minoans and took control of the Aegean around 1400 BC f) Infighting among Mycenaeans weakened their empire g) Greek-speaking Dorians w/iron weapons swept in from the north and destroyed Mycenaean kingdoms h) Many Mycenaeans fled to Turkey to escape The Greek Dark Ages • Dorians were eastern Europeans who had iron weapons, but no written language or advanced culture • After several generations, written language was lost in the region for about 300 years • Period of the Greek epics (Iliad and Odyssey) • Oral histories/stories from Mycenaean past • Finally, refugees from Ionia (coast of Turkey) returned to Greece and brought back written language and culture The City-States • The Polis—Greek word for city-state • Root word for politics a) Consisted of city and surrounding countryside b) At center was the acropolis c) Served as temple for local deity Citizens • • • a) b) c) Citizenship in most city-states was elitist Citizens made up the minority of each city-state Qualifications in most city-states included: Born in Greek city-state to Greek parents Male Land ownership Political and Social Change • Initially, polis governed by kings • Eventually lost power to aristocrats (nobles) • Aristocrats began taking advantage of lower classes; farms lost to aristocracy to pay back loans, etc. • Lower classes became resentful and demanded change • Also, middle class merchants (most noncitizens) began wanting a voice in government Rise of Tyrants • In order to maintain peace, many city-states turned gov’t over to tyrants who ruled singlehandedly (usually good and fair rulers) but often harsh and disliked by the majority • Most tyrannies evolved into either oligarchies or democracies • Two best examples: Sparta (oligarchy) and Athens (democracy) SPARTA • Best army in ancient Greece • Most powerful state before rise of Athens • Lycurgus - established the military-oriented reformation of Spartan society • No historical literature or written laws – According to tradition, prohibited by Lycurgus. • State ruled by two hereditary kings – Equal in authority • Duties – religious, judicial and military • Real power – Assembly (citizens over 30) – headed by 5 ephors and council of elders • Only those w/distinguished military records could be ephors or elders • Spartan citizens far outnumbered by two groups working for them: – Helots—slaves – Perioeci—artisans and merchants (noncitizens) • Fear of revolt by these two groups fueled the strict military gov’t – Revolt in 650 BC took 30 years to put down and created environment where change/new ideas unwelcomed Sparta’s Military Society • • • City had no walls as sign of military might All male citizens required to serve in army Life of a male citizen: a) birth—inspection by military officials b) 7 yrs—off to military school (academics, physical training and weaponry) c) 20 yrs—became soldiers and sent to frontier areas d) 30 yrs—arranged marriage; back to military e) 60 yrs—retirement and return home Women in Spartan Society • Greater rights than other Greek city-states – Treated equally from birth by parents (food,care) • Physical training and fighting skills – Married at 19 (most city-states 14), strange rituals of marriage • Allowed to leave home unescorted • Could own property, Couldn’t participate in government • Took great pride in son’s military records The wife of King Leonidas was allegedly asked why Spartan women were the only women in Greece who "ruled" their husbands. Gorgo replied, "because we are the only women who give birth to men." • Spartan laws discouraged anything that would distract people from their disciplined military life. – Sparta did not welcome visitors from other cities, and Spartans were not allowed to travel. – The Spartans were not interested in other ways of life and did not want to bring new ideas to their polis. • Sparta is on the Peloponnesus – Hilly, rocky area at the southern end of the Greek peninsula. – The Spartans conquered many people in the region and forced them to work as slaves. Athens • Monarchy-aristocracy-tyrannydemocracy • Athens began its history as a Neolithic hill-fort on top of the Acropolis ("high city"), some time in the third millennium BC. • By 1400 BC Athens • Powerful centre of the Mycenaean civilization – Athens was never sacked and abandoned at the time of the Doric invasion • Athenians claimed to be "pure" Ionians with no Doric element. • 8th century BCE – Athens re-emerged, by virtue of location, as a key city – Became the INTELLECTUAL CENTER of the world • Reformers of Athens • Draco: codified laws, harsh-death penalty for minor crimes • Solon: – rewrote laws – canceled land mortgages, limited amt of land one can own, male commoners right to vote • Cleisthenes: – men of all classes could serve on council, “Father of Greek Democracy” • Pericles: – removed restrictions on office holding, paid salaries to public officials END INTRO TO GREEKS Persia • Established by Cyrus the Great – Great builder/conqueror • Followed by Darius the Great • Darius led Persia against the Greeks – A great administrator – Allowed people to maintain identity • Satrapies, Roads, Uniformity – Language, weights, currency, law code • Rival power to the Greeks • Religion: Zoroastrianism: – Developed by the prophet Zoroaster around 600 B.C.E. – Taught that life is a battle between the opposing forces of good and evil, • Humans must choose between the two. PERSIAN WAR 500-479 BC • DARIUS LED PERSIANS • Battle of Marathon • Heavily outnumbered, win by “double envelopment” • 480: Battle of Thermopylae Pass – -Xerxes led Persians – Leonidas led Greeks – Bravery at its finest • 300 vs Thousands • Allows Greeks to prepare for invasion • Battle of Salamis – Persian naval disaster – Large Persian fleet versus small mobile Athenians • Xerxes and his throne • Battle of Plataea – 38,000 Athenian and Peloponnesian soldiers Delian League • • • • Headed by Athens Money squandered Peloponnesian War Sparta wins GOLDEN AGE • THEATER • TRAGEDY: SOPHOCLES, EURIPIDES, AESCHYLUS • COMEDY: ARISTOPHANES • Philosophy: – -Socrates “Know thyself” – Plato: wrote THE REPUBLIC about a perfect society ruled by intelligent aristocracy – Aristotle: wrote on science, govt, logic History: -Herodotus -Thucydides • Architecture: – -Columns: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian PARTHENON Science and math • Pythagoras: geometry • Hippocrates: disease of natural causes • Democritus: matter is composed of small atoms Alexander the Great • • • • • Son of Philip of Macedonia Greatest empire of the time Blended cultures=hellenistic Instilled peace Horse was Bucephalus • Decisive battle=Gaugamela • Envisioned a global world where cultures could mix • Encouraged generals to marry Persians • Died 323 BC • Power struggle • Ptolemy • Antigonid • Seleucid Hellenistic Cultural achievements • Alexandria • Aristarchus: astronomer who developed theory that the universe was heliocentric • Eratosthenes: circumference of the earth • Euclid: ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY • Archimedes: lever, pulley, value of pi Philosophers of Hellenistic age • Diogenes: cynic, rejected societal values of wealth, power, social position for self control • Zeno: live according to reason, be indifferent to pleasure or pain-Stoicism • Epicurus: seek pleasure and happiness in a balanced, moral life Sculpture Venus de Milo Nike: winged victory of Samothrace Dying Gaul Ancient Rome Foundations of a great civilization • 753 BCE Roman Civilization founded • Situated on seven wooded hills along the Tiber River • Legend has it that twin brothers Romulus and Remus founded Rome on one of these hills • Why is this location important? • Fertile soil • Excellent Building materials nearby • Strategically located • Easier to fend off invaders • Centrally located away from coast to protect against invaders such as pirates • Protected to the north by Alps The ancient city of Rome • Population: 50 – 70 million people at the Roman Empire’s height • 1 million lived in Rome • 5 – 6 million in Italy • The people of the Roman Empire were of all different nationalities and faiths • Class Structure • Upper Class – members of senate and their families • Lower Class – Citizens (farmers, city workers, and soldiers) and slaves (captured in war and eventually freed) • Equites – wealthy landowner class that emerged. They held government positions and helped run the civil service Political Structure (cont’d) • Patricians – Senate • Plebians – Assembly • Consuls • Representative (as opposed to Direct in Greece) • 12 Tables (innocent until proven guilty) The ancient city of Rome (cont’d) • • • • • Cities of Importance Cities of importance Alexandria, Antioch(Syria) and Constantinople All were centers of trade and cultural diffusion Forum – a large open space surrounded by markets and buildings, and temples • Family Structure • Family Structure was paternal (paterfamilias) and sons could not own property until father was deceased • Boys married around age15 – 18 and girls @ age 13 or 14 • Education • Until around the age of 11, most attended school at home or at a “private” school • Often, children were taught by slaves • It was not uncommon for these slaves to have more education than the people they taught • Higher education was reserved for the upper class • Religion • Early Romans believed in gods and goddesses • 300s BCE – Roman contact with Greeks leads then to adopt some Greek ideas-Magna Graecia • gods and temples to honor them • 313CE – turn to religion of Christianity Roman Economy • • • • • • • • Occupation - 90% of the people were farmers Manufacturing and Mining Most of these items came from areas outside Rome Gold and silver came from Spain Tin and Lead from Britain Italy did have iron ore and copper deposits This meant that they were heavily engaged in trade Cargo ships from the Mediterranean would bring goods from all over the empire • Traded for silk from China, Ivory from Africa • Transportation and Communication • 50,000 miles of roads covered the empire • Constructed by the army to increase movements of troops • These roads promoted trade and communication Arts and Sciences • Architecture was adapted from Greek architecture • Achievements of Roman Architecture • 1 – The arch – supported bridges and aqueducts and allowed for the construction of vaulted ceilings which could eliminate the need for columns • 2 – Concrete – provided a strong building material • Science • Ptolemy developed the study of astronomy 275 BCE The Roman Republic • 509 BCE – Roman Republic established • 2 elected officials called consuls headed the government • Served for 1 year • The Senate was the most powerful government body in the Roman Republic • Unlike the consuls, senators served for life • They were patricians(upper class members of society) • The plebeians(citizens) held little power as members of the assembly, the Concilium Plebis From Republic to Empire • 31 BCE – Roman Republic ends and the Roman empire is established • This was brought about by 20 years of civil war • An emperor now controlled the government’s decision making ability • The emperor appointed senators, consuls and other officials Laws to live by in Rome • 450 BCE Romans publish their first code of laws called the “Laws of the Twelve Tables” • The flexibility of these laws led to the establishment of a basic set of laws called jus gentium(law of nations) • These were a set of common sense laws • Army • Made of land owning citizens • They had a larger stake in what they were fighting for • Role of the Army • Build roads, walls, aqueducts, walls, and tunnels Rulers of Rome • • • • • • • • • • Julius Caesar Augustus Caesar Tiberius Nero Vespasian Trajan Hadrian Constantine Diocletian: East and West Theodosius The Fall of Rome • • • • • • • The empire grew steadily weaker over time Why? Size Internal Conflict Mercenary troops Germanic Peoples invaded and crushed Rome 476 - Empire ends when the last emperor is forced out of power by Germanic chieftain Odoacer Lasting Impacts of the Romans • Roman Law became the basis for many legal systems: Justinian’s Code(eastern) • Latin was the basis for many languages spoken today • Architectural achievements • Government structure • Religion