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Cover Slide Chapter 13 European Society in the Age of the Renaissance Chapter 13 OBJECTIVES • After reading and studying this chapter: – You should be able to discuss the meanings of the term renaissance. – Be able to explain the economic context for the Renaissance, the new status of the artist in Renaissance Italy, and the meanings of the terms humanism, secularism, and individualism as applied by scholars to the Renaissance. – Be able to explain how the Italian Renaissance affected politics, the economy, and society. – Finally, be able to elaborate on the evolution of medieval kingdoms into early modern nation-states, and the spread of Renaissance humanism northward. Why Did the Renaissance Begin in Italy? •The Renaissance was marked by a new interest in the culture of ancient Rome. Italy had been the center of the Roman empire. •The cities of Italy had survived the Middle Ages and grown into prosperous centers of trade and manufacturing. •A wealthy merchant class in the Italian city-states stressed education and individual achievement and spent lavishly on the arts. •Florence produced an amazing number of gifted poets, artists, architects, scholars, and scientists. The Evolution of the Italian Renaissance • Economic Growth as the Basis of the Renaissance – Venice, Genoa, and Milan grew rich on commerce between 1050 and 1300. – Florence, where the Renaissance originated, was an important banking center by the fourteenth century. Bank scene, Florence This detail from a fresco painting by Niccolo di Pietro Gerini (14th-15th c), The Story of Saint Matthew, depicts bankers in Florence. Originally a "bank" was just a counter; if covered with a carpet, like this Ottoman geometric rug with a kufic border, it became a bank of distinction. Moneychangers who sat behind the counter became "bankers," exchanging different currencies and holding deposits for merchants and business people. (Scala/Art Resource, NY) Painted cover for account book This painted cover for a fifteenth-century government account book from Siena, Italy, shows symbols of death--arrows, a scythe, and a horse--to carry the angel of death from place to place. (Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz) Brunelleschi, Dome of Cathedral Filipo Brunelleschi, the foremost architect of the early Renaissance, lost the competition for the commission for the north door of the Baptistery to Ghiberti. In 1417 he bested Ghiberti, and won the commission to build a dome for the Florentine Cathedral. Between 1420 and 1436 he built a drum, a vertical supporting wall, on the existing 138-foot-diameter octagonal cross of the cathedral. He then assembled the dome on the drum, essentially creating an eight-sided Gothic vault. (Scala/Art Resource, NY) Journey of the Magi Few Renaissance paintings better illustrate art in the service of the princely court than this painting by Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1497), The Magi on their way to Bethlehem with Lorenzo the Magnificent, which was commissioned by Piero de'Medici to adorn his palace chapel. Everything in this fresco--the large crowd, the feathers and diamonds adorning many of the personages, the black servant in front--serves to flaunt the power and wealth of the House of Medici. The artist has discreetly placed himself in the crowd; the name Benozzo is embroidered on his cap. (Scala/Art Resource, NY) The Evolution of the Italian Renaissance • Communes and Republics – In northern Italy the larger cities won independence from local nobles and became self-governing communes of free men in the twelfth century. – Local nobles moved into the cities and married into wealthy merchant families. – This new class set up property requirements for citizenship. – The excluded, the popolo, rebelled and in some cities set up republics. – By 1300 the republics had collapsed, and despots or oligarchies governed most Italian cities. Map: The Italian City-States, ca. 1494 The Italian City-States, ca. 1494 In the fifteenth century, the Italian city-states represented great wealth and cultural sophistication. The political divisions of the peninsula invited foreign intervention. (Copyright (c) Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.) Copyright ©Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. The Evolution of the Italian Renaissance • Balance of Power among the Italian City-States – City patriotism and constant competition for power among cities prevented political centralization on the Italian peninsula. – As cities strove to maintain the balance of power among themselves, they invented the apparatus of modern diplomacy. – In 1494 the city of Milan invited intervention by the French King Charles VIII. – Italy became a battleground as France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Emperor vied for dominance. – In 1527 the forces of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Rome. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence Built during the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries as a fortress of defense against both popular uprisings and foreign attacks, the Palazzo Vecchio, in Florence, housed the podesta, the city's highest magistrate, and all the offices of the government. (Art Resource, NY) Intellectual Hallmarks of the Renaissance • Individualism – Renaissance writers stressed individual personality, greatness, and achievement, in contrast to the medieval ideal of Christian humility. Humanism •At the heart of the Italian Renaissance was an intellectual movement known as humanism. •Humanism was based on the study of classical culture and focused on worldly subjects rather than on religious issues. •Humanists studied the humanities, the subjects taught in ancient Greece and Rome. They believed that education should stimulate creativity. Intellectual Hallmarks of the Renaissance • Humanism – The revival of antiquity took the form of interest in archaeology, recovery of ancient manuscripts, and study of the Latin classics. – The study of the classics became known as the “new learning,” or humanism. – Humanist scholars studied antiquity not so much to find God as to know human nature and understand a different historical context. – Humanists derided what they viewed as the debased Latin of the medieval churchmen. Erasmus Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) became part of a literary circle in Basel, Switzerland, that included Erasmus, whose portrait he painted on several occasions. In this intimate portrait of the humanist Holbein not only captures the delicate, yet un-idealized, features of Erasmus, but also the air of authority with which the humanist spoke and wrote. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY) Intellectual Hallmarks of the Renaissance • Secular Spirit – The secular way of thinking focuses on the world as experienced rather than on the spiritual and/or eternal. – Renaissance thinkers came to see life as an opportunity rather than a painful pilgrimage toward God. – Lorenzo Valla argued that sense pleasures were the highest good. – Giovanni Boccaccio wrote about an acquisitive, sensual, worldly society. – Renaissance popes expended much money on new buildings, a new cathedral (St. Peter’s), and on patronizing artists and men of letters. Art and the Artist • Art and Power – In the early Renaissance, corporate groups such as guilds sponsored religious art. – By the late fifteenth century individual princes, merchants, and bankers sponsored art to glorify themselves and their families. Their urban palaces were full of expensive furnishings as well as art. – Classical themes, individual portraits, and realistic style characterized Renaissance art. – Renaissance artists invented perspective and portrayed the human body in a more natural and scientific manner than previous artists did. 1 Three Geniuses of Renaissance Art LEONARDO Made sketches of nature and of models Dissected corpses to learn how the human body worked Masterpieces include Mona Lisa and The Last Supper Studied botany, anatomy, optics, music, architecture, and engineering Made sketches for flying machines and undersea boats MICHELANGELO Talented sculptor, engineer, painter, architect, and poet Sculpted the Pieta and statue of David Painted huge mural to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome Designed the dome for St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome RAPHAEL Studied the works of Michelangelo and Leonardo Paintings blended Christian and classical styles Best known for paintings of the Madonna, the biblical mother of Jesus Michelangelo, David The concept of genius as divine inspiration is nowhere exemplified more fully than in the life and work of Michelangelo Buonarrotti (1475-1564). And Michelangelo was a sculptor--more specifically, a carver of marble statues-to the core. His David is the earliest monumental statue of the High Renaissance, and the city fathers eventually chose to put it in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, as the civic-patriotic symbol of the Florentine republic. Michelangelo fashioned the marble in a new, more natural manner. David's bare skin contrasts with the rough leather strap of the slingshot, and his right leg leans against a realistic tree trunk. He blends the classical model of a victorious athlete crowned with a laurel wreath with the biblical hero as a defender of the faith. David is a mature young man of consummate beauty. (Scala/Art Resource, NY) Art and the Artist • The Status of the Artist – Medieval masons were viewed as mechanical workers/artisans. Renaissance artists were seen as intellectual workers. – The princes and merchants who patronized artists paid them well. – Artists themselves gloried in their achievements. During the Renaissance, the concept of artist as genius was born. – Renaissance culture was only the culture of a very wealthy mercantile elite; it did not affect the lives of the urban middle classes or the poor. Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa In 1503 Leonardo da Vinci began his most famous work--the Mona Lisa. The subject of the painting is Lisa Gherardini del Giocondo, the wife of a prominent Florentine businessman. She is posed half-length in the seated position, her posture is relaxed, and her gaze is direct. The softening of the edges of the background, effecting a fine haze called sfumato, creates a sense of intimacy and psychological drama. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY) Anguissola, Portrait of Artist's Three Sisters Anguissola, Portrait of Artist's Three Sisters Sofonisba Anguissola (ca. 1535-1625) was the first Italian woman to be widely recognized as an artist during her lifetime. Because women were not permitted to study anatomy, Sofonisba specialized in portrait paintings, infusing them with psychological truth about human emotions. In her painting Portrait of the Artist's Three Sisters with Their Governess, the scene is a suspended moment in time: as the governess looks on, the oldest sister is poised to make her next move, while the youngest sister smiles mischievously as she anticipates her other sister's countermove. (Narodowe Museum, Poznan, Poland/The Bridgeman Art Library International) Copyright ©Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Social Change • Education and Political Thought – Humanist writers were preoccupied with education for morality and virtue. – Baldassare Castiglione’s The Courtier (1528) presented an image of the ideal man as master of dance, music, the arts, warfare, mathematics, and so on. – Daughters of the elite received an education similar to sons and a few went on to become renowned painters or scholars. – In The Prince (1513), Niccolo Machiavelli argued that politics could not follow simple rules of virtue and morality—that it ought in fact to be studied as a science. Machiavelli, portrait In this fifteenth-century portrait Machiavelli is dressed as a government official. After being exiled from Florence by the Medici, he wrote to a friend that each night when he returned from the fields he dressed again in his curial robes and pondered the behavior of governments and princes. (Scala/Art Resource, NY) Social Change • The Printed Word – Around 1455 in the German city of Mainz, Johan Gutenberg and two other men invented the movable type printing press. – Methods of paper production had reached Europe in the twelfth century from China through the Near East. – Printing made government and Church propaganda much more practical, created an invisible “public” of readers, and stimulated literacy among laypeople. French print shop This colored engraving, after a miniature of the sixteenth century, depicts a French printshop of the time. A workman operates the "press," quite literally a screw device that presses the paper to the inked type. Other employees examine the printed sheets, each of which holds four pages. When folded, the sheets make a book. (Giraudon/Art Resource, NY) Broadsheet: "There Is No Greater …" Broadsheet: "There Is No Greater …" Ethard Schon's 1523 woodcut, There Is No Greater Treasure Here on Earth Than an Obedient Wife Who Desires Honor, and other similar broadsheets informed and amused Europeans of all walks of life. The image of a henpecked husband and his wife would have been instantly recognizable to most people. Accompanying texts clarified the message. Broadsheets were cheap and easy to produce and were printed on inexpensive paper. Almost anyone could afford them. (Gotha Schlossmuseum) Map: The Spread of Printing The Spread of Printing Printing technology moved rapidly along major trade routes to the most populous and prosperous areas of Europe. The technology was rapidly adopted in peripheral areas as well as in highly literate centers such as the Low Countries, the Rhine Valley, and northern Italy. (Copyright (c) Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.) Copyright ©Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Social Change • Clocks – City people involved in commerce had a need to measure time. – By the early fourteenth century mechanical clocks were widespread in Europe. – Mechanical clocks and precise measurement of time contributed to the development of a conception of the universe in measurable, quantitative terms. Social Change • Women and Work – Early modern culture identified women with marriage and the domestic virtues. – Women were involved with all economic activity connected with the care and nurturing of the family, as well as working outside the home. – Women during the Renaissance worked in a variety of businesses—for example, sail-making—and even in a few isolated cases managed large enterprises. – Wealthy women were usually excluded from the public arena and instead managed their households. Social Change • Culture and Sexuality – Women’s status in the realm of love, romance, and sex declined during the Renaissance. – Writers such as Castiglione created the “double standard” women were to be faithful in marriage, while men need not be. – Penalties for rape in Renaissance Italy were very light. – In spite of statutes against “sodomy,” generally referring to male homosexuality, Florentine records from the fifteenth century show a lot of homosexual activity going on, usually relations between an adult male and a boy. Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Slaying Holofernes Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-1653) was one of Caravaggio's followers. Because of the trauma incurred in her young life (she was raped as a young girl), Gentileschi often chose to portray heroic women, including Esther and Bathsheba, and this scene, which portrays the biblical heroine Judith slaying the Assyrian king. The naturalistic realism of the female forms contrasts with the dramatic character of what has just occurred--the beheading of Holofernes. The tension of the scene is further heightened by Gentileschi's skillful use of tenebrosity, characterized by figures that emerge from the dark atmosphere of the painting into a type of spotlight. (Alinari/Art Resource,NY) Social Change • Slavery and Ethnicity – In medieval and Renaissance Europe many Slavic, Tartar, Circassian, Greek, and Hungarian slaves were imported. – Beginning in the fifteenth century the Portuguese brought many black African slaves into Europe. – Within Africa the economic motives of rulers and merchants trumped any cultural/ethnic/racial hostility toward Europeans. They sold fellow Africans into slavery apparently without qualms. – Africans did not identify themselves as “black,” but as members of more than 600 different tribal and ethnic groups. – Black slaves were an object of curiosity at European courts. – The Renaissance concept of people from sub-Saharan Africa was shaped by Christian symbology of light and darkness blacks represented the Devil. Race did not emerge as a concept until the late seventeenth century. The Renaissance in the North • Northern Humanists – In the late fifteenth century students from northern Europe studied in Italy and brought the Renaissance home. – Thomas More (1478–1535) of England argued that reform of social institutions could reduce or eliminate corruption and war. – The Dutchman Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) was an expert in the Bible and Greek language who believed that all Christians should read the Bible. – François Rabelais (1490–1553) ridiculed established institutions such as the clergy with gross humor in Gargantua. – Flemish artists came to rival the Italian Renaissance painters. 2 Writers of the Northern Renaissance RABELAIS SHAKESPEARE English poet who was the French humanist who towering figure of was a monk, physician, Renaissance literature Greek scholar, and Wrote 37 plays that are author still performed around the world Offered opinions on religion, education, and His love of words vastly other subjects in enriched the English Gargantua and language. Pantagruel. CERVANTES Spanish author who wrote Don Quixote, which mocks romantic notions about medieval chivalry Bruegel the Elder, Peasant Wedding Pieter Bruegel the Elder (ca. 1525-1569) was a master of both landscapes and peasant life. His successful portrayals of peasant life earned him the nickname "Peasant" Bruegel. Peasant Wedding demonstrates Bruegel's colorful and affectionate treatment of common folk. The solid, balanced figures are painted with flat colors, but because they are painted with a minimal amount of modeling, they cast no shadows. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY) Politics and the State in the Renaissance (ca 1450–1521) • Centralization of Power – Some scholars have viewed Renaissance kingship as a new form, citing the dependence of the monarch on urban wealth and the ideology of the “strong king.” – In France Charles VII (r. 1422–1461) created the first permanent royal army, set up new taxes on salt and land, and allowed increased influence in his bureaucracy from middle-class men. He also asserted his right to appoint bishops in the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. – Charles’s son Louis XI (r. 1461–1483) fostered industry from artisans, taxed it, and used the funds to build up his army. He brought much new territory under direct Crown rule. – In England Edward IV ended the War of the Roses between rival baronial houses. Politics and the State in the Renaissance (ca 1450–1521) – Henry VII ruled largely without Parliament, using as his advisers men with lower-level gentry origins. – Henry’s Court of the Star Chamber tried cases involving aristocrats and did so with methods contradicting common law, such as torture. – Although Spain remained a confederation of kingdoms until 1700, the wedding of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon did lead to some centralization. Ferdinand and Isabella stopped violence among the nobles, recruited “middle-class” advisers onto their royal council, and secured the right to appoint bishops in Spain and in the Spanish empire in America. Politics and the State in the Renaissance (ca 1450–1521) – Popular anti-Semitism increased in fourteenthcentury Spain. In 1478 Ferdinand and Isabella invited the Inquisition into Spain to search out and punish Jewish converts to Christianity who secretly continued Jewish religious practices. – To persecute converts, Inquisitors and others formulated a racial theory - that conversos were suspect not because of their beliefs, but because of who they were racially. – In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella expelled the Jews from Spain. Statue of Isabella Backed by a relief of Santiago, scourge of the Muslims, this polychrome statue of Isabella overlooked the royal tomb in the royal chapel of Granada Cathedral. (Laurie Platt Winfrey, Inc.) Map: Spain in 1492 Spain in 1492 The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 represented a dynastic union of two houses, not a political union of two peoples. Some principalities, such as Leon (part of Castile) and Catalonia (part of Aragon), had their own cultures, languages, and legal systems. Barcelona, the port city of Catalonia, controlled a commercial empire throughout the Mediterranean. The culture of Granada was heavily Muslim. (Copyright (c) Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.) Copyright ©Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Italy as center of ancient Roman empire Survival of Italian city-states through the Middle Ages Italian merchants become patrons of the arts The Renaissance Humanism • Study of classics • Study of worldly subjects • Influential Humanist: Francesco Petrarch Golden Age of the Arts • Learned from classical art • Use of perspective • Renowned Artists: Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sofonisba Anguissola • Important Writers: Castiglione, Machiavelli Northern Renaissance • Artists: Durer, Bruegel, Rubens • Humanists: Erasmus, More • Writers: Rabelais, Shakespeare, Cervantes