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Grammar Handbook Part 1 The Parts of Speech The Eight Parts of Speech noun adjective pronoun conjunction verb adverb preposition interjection Mnemonic: Penny and Isaac are very clever playing Nintendo. 1a A noun is a word used to name a person, place, thing, or idea. PERSONS: skater, Mrs. Kearney, grandfather, police PLACES: valley, Georgia, nation, school THINGS: apple, Grammy Award, fever, cactus IDEAS: friendship, trust, worry, liberty 1b A common noun names any one group of persons, places, things, or ideas. A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea. COMMON NOUNS: woman, nation, event, holiday, language PROPER NOUNS: Academy Awards, Valentine’s Day, Toyota 1c A collective noun names a group. COLLECTIVE NOUNS: class, swarm, fleet, crew, group, team 1e A compound noun consists of two or more words used together as a single noun. Some compound nouns are written as one word, some as separate words, and others as hyphenated words. COMPOUND NOUNS: sidewalk, telephone pole, bull’s-eye, Jonas Salk 1f A pronoun is a word used in place of noun or of more than one noun. See attached chart. 1g An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun. To modify means “to describe or make more definite” What kind? old book, blue sky, warm water Which one? that game, those lights, his stereo How many? six days, nine judges, many friends The most frequently used adjectives are the articles: a, an, the. 1h A verb is a word that expresses action or state of being. 1) An action verb expresses physical or mental activity. ex: leap, sail, break 2) A linking verb connects the subject with a word that identifies or describes it. ex: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been, appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn. 3) A verb phrase consists of a main verb and at least one helping verb. Common helping verbs: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, has, have, have, had, do, does, may, might, must, can, could, shall, would, will, would, did 1i An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs modify by telling how, when, where, and to what extent. How? When? Where? To what extent? 1j aboard about above across after against along among around at before behind The drummer plays well. I occasionally play basketball. Did you travel far? I’ve never been to China. A preposition is a word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence. A preposition always introduces a phrase. The noun or pronoun that ends a prepositional phrase is the object of the preposition. below beneath beside besides between beyond by concerning down during except for from in inside into like near of off on onto outside over past since through to toward under until up upon with within without 1k A conjunction is a word used to join words or groups of words. 1) Coordinating conjunctions join words or groups of words used in the same way. Coordinating conjunction: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so 2) Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs o join words or groups of words used in the same way. Correlative conjunctions: both...and, neither...nor, whether...or, either...or, not only...but (also) 3) Subordinating conjunction begins a subordinate clause and connects it to an independent clause. Subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, as if, as much as, as though, as well as, because, before, even though, how, if, in order that, if, provided, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while, why 1l An interjection is a word that expresses emotion. It has no grammatical relation to other words in the sentence. It is sent apart by a comma or an exclamation point. Part 2 The Parts of a Sentence 2a A sentence consists of two parts: a subject and a predicate. A subject tells whom or what the sentence is about. A predicate tells something about the subject. The energetic kitten unraveled the ball of yarn. 2b A simple subject is the main word or group of words in the complete subject that tells whom or what the sentence is about. The energetic kitten unraveled the ball of yarn. 2c A simple predicate is a verb or verb phrase in the complete predicate that tells something about the subject. The energetic kitten unraveled the ball of yarn. 2d To find the subject of a sentence ask, Who? or What? before the verb. 1) The subject of a sentence expressing a command or a request is always understood to be you, although you may not appear in the sentence. 2) The subject of a sentence is never in a prepositional phrase. 3) The subject of a sentence expressing a question usually follows the verb or part of the verb phrase. 4) The word there or here is never the subject of the sentence. 2e A direct object is a word or group of words that receives the action of a verb or shows the result of the action. A direct object tells who or what after a special type of action verb, called a transitive verb. Ex. Angela recited the poem. (recited what? the poem) 2f An indirect object is a word or group of words that comes between an action verb and a direct object and tells to whom or to what or from whom or for what the action of the verb is done. Ex. Jackie sent Samantha the invitation. (sent the invitation to whom? Samantha) 2g A predicate nominative is a word or group of words that follows a linking verb and refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb. Ex. Mary Cassatt was a painter. (The noun painter refers to Mary Cassatt.) 2h A predicate adjective is a word or group of words that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of the verb. Ex. The sky is blustery. (The adjective blustery describes sky). 2i Classification of Sentences by Purpose 1) A declarative sentence makes a statement. It is followed by a period. George Washington was the first president. 2) An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is followed by a question mark. Have you ever been to Maine? 3) An imperative sentence makes a request or gives a command. It is usually followed by a period. A very strong command, however, is followed by an exclamation point. Stop running! 4) An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling or shows excitement. It is followed by an exclamation point. What a motivating speech she gave! Part 3 The Phrase 3a A phrase is a group of related words that is used as a single part of speech and does not contain both a verb and its subject. 3b A prepositional phrase is a group of words consisting of a preposition, a noun or pronoun that serves as the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of that object. The brick house with green shutters is my house. An object of the preposition may be compound. 3c An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun. An adjective phrase tells what kind or which one. An adjective phrase always follows the word it modifies. 3d An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. An adverb phrase tells how, when, where, why, or to what extent. An adverb phrase may come before the word it modifies. 3e An appositive is a noun or pronoun placed beside another noun or pronoun to identify or explain it. Leni’s favorite flowers, peonies and daffodils, are my favorite, too. 1) If an appositive is non-essential to the meaning of a sentence, it is set off by commas. 2) If it is essential to the meaning of the sentence, it is not set of by commas. ex. My brother Bill is a state trooper. (This indicates I have more than one brother and I am talking about the one who is named Bill.) Part Four Clauses 4a An independent (or main) clause) expresses a complete thought and can stand by itself as a sentence. Ex #1 One independent clause Ex. #2 Two independent clauses joined by and Ex. #3 Two independent clauses joined by a semicolon Ex. #4 One independent clause joined with a subordinate clause 4b A subordinate (or dependent) clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. Words such as because, that, whom usually signal the beginning of a subordinate clause. Ex. 4c An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun. An adjective clause follows the word or word it modifies and tells which one or what kind. An adjective clause is usually introduced by a relative pronoun. The relative pronoun relates the clause to the word or words that the clause modifies. Relative Pronouns: that, which, who, who, whose ex Kristina’s Kitchen, which serves the best hot cider, is the place to go to warm up. 4d An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. An adverb tells how, when, where, why, to what extent, or under what condition. after although as as if as long as as soon as Common Subordinating Conjunctions as though since because so that before than how though if unless in order that until when whenever where wherever whether while 4d A noun clause is a subordinate clause used a noun. A noun may be a subject, a predicate nominative, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition. Subject P.N. D.O. I.O. Obj. of Prep. What Lani told me helped me a great deal. That is where I’d like to be. Louis told us why he was excited. Jasper told whoever would listen the same story. Did they give the food to whoever asked for it? Common Introductory Words for Noun Clauses: how, if, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, why 4e According to their structure sentences are classified as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. 1) A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. ex. 2) A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clauses. A compound sentence may be joined by a comma a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, yet, so) a semicolon; or a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb (also, anyway, instead, still, therefore) or a transitional expression (as a result, in fact, for example). ex. 3) A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause. ex. 4) A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause. ex.