Download Imam Al Ghazali Explained

AL-GHAZALI
(1 0 5 8 – 1 1 1 1 )
Pronounced al-Ghazālī1
Abu Hamid ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Tusi al-Shafi’i al-Ghazali (known simply as alGhazali), was an eleventh century polymath (Ahmed, 2013) and one of history’s greatest
contributors to Islam. He was a respected teacher, prolific writer with immense intellectual
standing, and is unanimously agreed to be one of the greatest influences on Islamic thought
and practice of all time, earning him the honorific titles of ‘proof of Islam’ and ‘the Reviver’ of
the fifth Islamic century.
CONTENTS
Historical Context .......................................................................................................................... 2
Life ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Contribution and Impact ............................................................................................................... 8
Theology (kalam)................................................................................................................... 9
Philosophy (falasifa) ............................................................................................................ 11
Sufism (tasawwuf)............................................................................................................... 13
Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Main Literary Works .................................................................................................................... 18
References................................................................................................................................... 19
Further Resources ...........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
1
There is a difference of opinion as to the spelling of his name. Those who say it is spelt al-Ghazzālī say
it is because his father used to spin wool (called a ghazzāl) and those who say it is spelt al-Ghazālī say it
is because he is from a small village named Ghazāla. He is referred to as Algazel in some Orientalist
works.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Al-Ghazali lived during the Golden Age of Islam, a time in which both knowledge and progress
flourished throughout the Islamic world. Yet despite this age of enlightened thinkers the
Islamic world faced three major controversies, rooted in the tension between:



Revelation and reason;
Philosophy and religion;
The outer and the inner dimensions of Islam (Nofal, 1993).
These controversies very much influenced al-Ghazali’s academic direction, and, enabled by his
position of significant intellectual authority, he systematically addressed each of these
challenges. Al-Ghazali himself references the debates of his time, in what is often called his
‘spiritual auto-biography’, al-Munqidh min al-Dalal (Deliverance from Error)2:
‘When I saw that the faith of all the different kinds of people had reached
such a low state of weakness because of these causes, and saw my soul
entirely mobilised to discover the root causes of this defect, it became easier
for me to expose all of them than to drink a sip of water due to my deep
familiarity with their sciences and their paths - I mean the paths of the sufis3,
the philosophers, the ta’limites4, and those who wear the outward signs of
the ulama5.’ (McCarthy, 2006)
Al-Ghazali was therefore not only aware of the challenges of his time, but of his unique ability
to address them.
The tension between revelation and reason was significant in al-Ghazali’s time and, aggravated
by the politics of the competing caliphates6, many age-old theological debates were rekindled.
His reputation of immense knowledge and skilful refutation lead him to be commissioned by
the vizier of the Abbasid caliph in order to defend Sunni7 doctrine against theological attacks
from various deviant sects.
As classical Greek philosophy8 entered the Islamic world, some views challenged traditional
Islamic thought, resulting in the second tension, between philosophy and religion.
Subsequently, many debates raged around the permissibility of deriving knowledge from the
non-religious contributions of philosophers, including the sciences of logic and rhetoric. The
2
Later referred to simply as the Munqidh.
Sufi: A master of the spiritual science of tasawwuf. Originally derived from descriptions of early
practitioners who would renounce worldly comforts and endeavours for the sake of spiritual growth.
4
Ta’limite: Those who claim to follow an infallible Imam (spiritual leader), more specifically referred to
as Isma’ili’s at al-Ghazali’s time.
5
Ulama: Theologians and scholars (of religion).
6
Caliphate: An area containing an Islamic steward known as a caliph, a person considered as leader of
the entire Muslim community. At al-Ghazali’s time there were conflicting Shi’a and Sunni caliphates.
7
Sunni: Orthodox Islam, as opposed to Shi’a, which began as a political division that later lead to various
doctrinal implications.
8
Classical Greek philosophy: Also sometimes referred to as Peripatetic philosophy.
3
great historian and mufti of Damascus, Ibn al-Subki (d. 1370), aptly reflected on al-Ghazali’s
context regarding the challenges faced by Greek philosophy, with the words:
‘He came at a time when people stood in dire need of replies against the
philosophers than the darkest night stands in need of the light of the moon
and stars.’
Al-Ghazali’s time was also one of spiritual emptiness, as the masses were now seeking
knowledge of religion for worldly gain and losing the heart of their outward practices. After
realising that this was even present within himself to some degree, he set out on an ascetic
journey of self-discovery, in the process reviving many of the spiritual secrets forgotten
through empty acts of devotion.
Although it is not conveyed in his works, al-Ghazali’s era was not one of peace and security.
Internally, Isma’ilis9 with Batinite10 views (who later became the infamous ‘assassins’) were
threatening al-Ghazali himself, and in fact murdered two of his employers during his life.
Externally, the First Crusade, during the latter part of his life, laid siege to Islam’s holy sites,
while the Mongol invasions, beginning only a century after his death, significantly impact some
of his greatest contributions.
While al-Ghazali was urging the Muslims to education and asceticism, Peter the Hermit was
rallying the masses in Europe to join the Crusades (Nofal, 1993). This significant historical
movement had little impact on al-Ghazali’s teachings, even during Crusader occupation of
Jerusalem. His legacy however, went on to play a crucial role in the education of the great
Salahuddin11, who touched Muslim and Christian hearts until today with his display of
compassion and chivalry as he fought the Crusaders nearly 80 years after al-Ghazali’s death
(Burhan, 1999).
Some have argued that al-Ghazali idled the progress of science in the Islamic world through his
refutations of Greek philosophy. While it is true that he weakened interest in classical Greek
thought, it is not quite accurate to extend this to all sciences. There is ample evidence that
Islam’s progress continued and even increased through his legacy, such as the development of
astronomy and the introduction of logic into traditional Islamic curriculums (Nofal, 1993).
The Mongol invasion of Baghdad in 1258 had significant impact in limiting al-Ghazali’s
contributions in both an academic and theological sense. For example, much of the ground he
made in refuting Shi’a doctrine was undone when Iran was re-established from its ashes as a
Shi’a majority nation after being faithfully Sunni from the earliest of times (Murad, 2014). It
said that the waters of Baghdad’s Tigris River ran thick with blood and ink from the massacre
of scholars and their libraries of books. Up to one million people are estimated to have been
butchered in just one week of pillage and destruction (Firas, 2012). Steven Dutch provides
9
Isma’ili: A branch of Shi’ism with similar doctrine to the Twelvers but a divergence in who they
considered to be their infallible Imams.
10
Batinism: A form of extreme esotericism literally means to prefer the inward or non-apparent
meanings of things, at the expense of the outward. In this context it has negative connotations referring
to the Isma’ili doctrine that true knowledge can only come from following an infallible Imam.
11
Known in the West as Saladin.
great perspective in his book ‘The Mongols’:
‘Baghdad was one of the most brilliant intellectual centers in the world. The
Mongol destruction of Baghdad was a psychological blow from which Islam
never recovered. With the sack of Baghdad, the intellectual flowering of Islam
was snuffed out. Imagining the Athens of Pericles and Aristotle obliterated by
a nuclear weapon begins to suggest the enormity of the blow.’ (Dutch, 1998)
Consequently, the Mongol invasion of Baghdad is considered by some to have marked the end
of the ‘golden age’ of Islamic civilisation (Cooper & Yue, 2008).
As with all great men, al-Ghazali’s historical context significantly influenced the nature of his
contributions. He rose to challenge the controversies of his time and successfully addressed his
own spiritual deficiencies, becoming a guiding light for Muslims until today. While his impact
was largely one of educating the masses and realigning the academics, the significant historical
events that took place shortly after his passing, on the one hand, were influenced by his works
(e.g. in the case of Salahuddin) and, on the other, limited their great potential (i.e. in the case
of the fall of Baghdad). All things considered, his people ennobled him with the honorifics
‘proof of Islam’ (hujjat al-Islam) and ‘reviver’ (mujaddid) of their century, and his mammoth
legacy certainly attests to their appropriateness.
LIFE
Al-Ghazali was born in 1058 AD in Tus, which lies within the Khorasan Province of Persia
(located in present-day Iran) and, in line with the culture of the time, began his Islamic
education at a very young age. His father died in his early years and, stricken by poverty, gave
responsibility of raising his two sons to a close friend, said to have been a sufi. Through him alGhazali had early exposure to the science of Sufism12 (tasawwuf), yet he preferred the more
widely accepted exoteric sciences.
Al-Ghazali went on to continue his studies in Baghdad, the ancient epicentre of knowledge,
learning from some of the greatest teachers of his time, most notably Imam al-Haramayn alJuwayni. His primary areas of study included Arabic, Persian, Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh13),
Qur’anic exegesis (tafsir), theology (‘aqida & kalam14), and Prophetic tradition (hadith). He
excelled in all the disciplines of his education and was acclaimed by one of his teachers as
being like an ‘ocean of knowledge’.
Around the age of fifteen, al-Ghazali moved to Jurjan (on the Caspian sea) to further study
jurisprudence. Along the way he was robbed, and after begging to keep his books, which he
claimed contained his ‘knowledge’, he realised that any knowledge not internalised could be
taken at any moment and resolved to spend the next three years in Tus committing all of his
notes to memory.
He then moved to Nishapur, now in his mid-twenties, where he continued his studies in
jurisprudence and theology. As these classical sciences had respectively come to appear as too
external and apologetic, he felt an urgent need to reconnect with the intellectual wellsprings
of Islam’s primary sources. He found the ideal tool for this in the art of reason. The classical
Greeks, whose major works had been translated into Arabic only a century before (Burnett,
2013), were famous for developing this science to a notably high degree. Since some stigma
and confusion surrounded their works, he began a personal study of Greek philosophy
(falasifa) in private (McLean, 2001).
He travelled again to meet the Seljuq15 vizier Nizam al-Mulk, and remained with him for six
years: studying, writing and serving as a court jurist. He took part in political and learned
disputes until he was appointed as the professor of the Nizamiyya College in Baghdad, the
highest and most coveted position for Muslim scholars at that time. He worked there for 4
years and by the age of 38, was at the pinnacle of his career, with hundreds of students sitting
at his feet and a reputation that carried across the Muslim empire. The knowledge at his
fingertips and his skill in refutation was unparalleled.
12
Sufism: A recent orientalist term said to translate to the Islamic science of tasawwuf. Tasawwuf, being
a verbal noun, cannot be translated into an ‘ism’, so its use has lead to confusion. Tasawwuf is the act of
freeing oneself from carnal vices and ego in order to acquire qualities and conduct that are pleasing to
God. It is also problematically translated as ‘Islamic mysticism’ or ‘esotericism’, limiting its definition.
13
Fiqh: Essentially a summary of what constitutes acceptable worship and levels of permissibility and
prohibition, as distilled by expert scholars from the Qur’an and Prophetic narrations.
14
Kalam: Usually translated as ‘scholastic theology’, it is more of an apologetic nature than the study of
creed, which is called ‘aqida. Kalam developed in order to defend tenets creed against doubters,
detractors and several complex theological ‘problems’.
15
Seljuq: A Turkic temporal dynasty (1038 - 1194) during the latter part of the Abbasid Caliphate (750 1258), centred in Iran, Central Asia and Iraq.
In 1092, a young Isma’ili with Batinite views assassinated Nizam al-Mulk. Some claim that this
impacted al-Ghazali’s later spiritual-crisis but al-Ghazali himself does not mention this as
playing a factor (McLean, 2001). What seems more evident is that he had long been
questioning himself and the life he was leading.
In his Munqidh, al-Ghazali describes a period where he realises that his intentions in teaching
were not sincerely for God’s sake alone. He describes how he battled daily with his desires; in
the morning resolving to leave his post but by the evening ‘hosts of passion would assail it [his
resolve] and render it lukewarm’.
To understand his inner struggle, consider his narration of the words of faith crying out:
‘Away! Up and away! Only a little is left of your life, and a long journey lies
before you! All the theory and practice in which you are engrossed is eye
service and fakery! If you do not prepare now for the afterlife, when will you
do so? And if you do not sever these attachments now, then when will you
sever them?’ (McCarthy, 2006)
In 1095, after being so affected by his inner crisis to the point of sickness and the inability to
speak, he submitted to his powerlessness before God and acted upon his resolve. Thus, after
wielding the intellectual weapons of the philosophers against themselves, al-Ghazali
dramatically turned away from his study and teaching of the outward sciences (including Greek
philosophy and scholastic theology), to embark upon his greatest journey – one that was more
than just physical but very much spiritual and mystical in essence.
Leaving just enough provision to sustain his family, Al-Ghazali distributed the remainder of his
wealth to the people of Iraq, and left Baghdad in order to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca.
However, he strategically withheld from informing others that this pilgrimage was in fact part
of a much greater plan to permanently abandon his post (McCarthy, 2006). Upon the
completion of his pilgrimage, al-Ghazali headed for Damascus, then Jerusalem, then Damascus
again where he remained for several years, taking up the ascetic life with the words:
‘We sought after knowledge for other than God's sake, but He refused that it
be for anything other than Him.’ (Nofal, 1993)
By approximately 1099, he returned to his home in Tus where he lived a life of prayer, worship,
meditation and study. Al-Ghazali later reflects on his journey and the time he spent in solitude,
saying:
‘For ten years I remained in that condition. In the course of those periods of
solitude things impossible to enumerate or detail in depth were disclosed to
me. This much I shall mention, that profit may be derived from it: I knew with
certainty that the sufis are those who uniquely follow the way to God Most
High, their mode of life is the best of all, their way the most direct of ways,
and their ethic the purest. Indeed, were one to combine the insight of the
intellectuals, the wisdom of the wise, and the lore of scholars versed in the
mysteries of revelation in order to change a single item of sufi conduct and
ethic and to replace it with something better, no way to do so would be
found! For all their motions and quiescences, exterior and interior, are
learned from the light of the niche of prophecy. And beyond the light of
prophecy there is no light on earth from which illumination can be obtained.’
(McCarthy, 2006)
As al-Ghazali mentions, this retreat lasted some ten years, after which the son of Nizam alMulk, Fakhr al-Mulk, who was trying to lay down a firm line of defence against Batinism,
summoned him to return once again to his earliest teaching post at Nishapur (McLean, 2001).
After much consultation al-Ghazali came to the conclusion that isolated worship was not
enough at ‘a time of tepidity and an era of error’ (McCarthy, 2006). Hence, he eventually
returned to his post at the Nizamiyya Institute in 1106. This however was short lived, for the
following year Fakhr al-Mulk was assassinated like his father (McLean, 2001). He returned to
Tus and taught his magnum opus Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din (Revival of Religious Sciences) until his
death, occupying the remainder of his time with devotions, Qur'an recitations, prayer, fasting
and good company. Ibn al-Jawzi narrated in al-Thabat 'Inda al-Mamat (Firmness at the Time of
Death), from al-Ghazali's brother:
‘…at the time of the dawn prayer my brother Abu Hamid [al-Ghazali] made his
ablution, prayed, then said: “Bring me my shroud.” He took it, kissed it and
put it on his eyes, saying: “We hear and obey in readiness to enter the King's
presence.” Then he stretched his legs, facing the qibla16, and died before
sunrise.’ (Haddad, 2012)
The Prophet (‫)ﷺ‬17 is recorded to have said:
‘God shall raise for this umma18 at the head of every century a man who shall
revive for it its religion.’ 19
With the sixth century of the Islamic calendar beginning on September 2nd 1106, al-Ghazali
was unanimously acclaimed by his contemporaries as the reviver (mujaddid) of the fifth Islamic
century (Haddad, 2012).
Critics aside, there is no taking away from his brilliance, his quest for certitude and selfannihilation, his desire to be sincere and true, and his mammoth contribution to finding the
path to salvation.
16
Qibla: The direction of Mecca a Muslim faces during many acts of worship, including the prayer.
‫ﷺ‬: Pronounced: ‘sal Allahu ‘alayhi wa sallam’, means: ‘God bless him and grant him peace,’ and is
said after mentioning prophets of God out of love and respect.
17
18
19
Umma: Lit. ‘nation’, referring to all those who follow the Prophet Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬.
Sunan Abu Dawood, 37:4278.
CONTRIBUTION AND IMPACT
Al-Ghazali, known as both the ‘proof of Islam’ (hujjat al-Islam) and the ‘reviver’ (mujaddid) of
the fifth Islamic century, has certainly fulfilled his titles by profoundly contributing to the
Islamic corpus of knowledge. His contributions span the fields of jurisprudence (fiqh), Sufism
(tasawwuf), ethics (akhlaq), theology (kalam), philosophy (falasifa), logic (mantiq), education
and science. This report has been produced giving consideration to the small number of hours
devoted to al-Ghazali’s study in the HSC syllabus and the time available for students in their
exams. Therefore, while his contribution in each field mentioned above is immense in both
breadth and depth, the three contributions that led to the greatest impact on Islamic thought
have been selected. Namely, his contributions in: theology, philosophy and Sufism.
In his formative years, al-Ghazali, armed with formidable intellect, believed that all kinds of
knowledge should be investigated, with nothing being considered ‘dangerous’ or approached
with caution. In line with the true nature of the word philosopher, etymologically derived from
the ancient Greek philo-sophos (lover of wisdom), he narrates of his quest for knowledge in
every crack and crevasse with no regard for safe-guarding his own beliefs or preconceptions:
‘I poked into every dark recess and made an assault on every problem, I
plunged into every abyss. I scrutinised the creed of every sect and I fathomed
the mysteries of each doctrine. All this I did that I might distinguish between
the true and the false. There was not a philosopher whose system I did not
acquaint myself with, nor a theologian whose doctrines I did not examine. If
ever I met a sufi, I coveted to probe into his secrets; if an ascetic, I
investigated into the basis of his austerities; if one of the atheistic zindiqs 20, I
groped into the causes of his bold atheism.’
Al-Ghazali classified the prevailing epistemological doctrines of his day into four main groups:
scholastic theology, based on logic and reason; esotericism, based on initiation and
submission; philosophy, based on logic and proof; and Sufism, based on revelation and
inspiration. He also held that the means whereby knowledge could be attained were: the
senses, reason and revelation. In the end, he came to prefer Sufism as the preeminent means
through which one can attain complete certainty of God21 (Nofal, 1993).
Much of al-Ghazali’s interest, and hence contribution can be said to have been in direct
response to his historical context. They were three-fold:



Defence of Sunni theology;
Refutation of classical Greek philosophy;
Legitimisation and support of Sufism.
In doing so, al-Ghazali traversed an intellectual plain, settled in a spiritual realm and
compellingly communicated the deep connection between the two.
20
Zindiq: A medieval Islamic term applied to individuals who were considered to hold views contrary to
central Islamic dogmas.
21
The English word God with a capital ‘G’ is a sufficient and accurate translation of Allah.
Although his contributions were indeed significant, al-Ghazali cannot be described as a
pioneer. He was not a scholar who struck out a new path, but a man of intense personality
who entered on a path already trodden and made it the common highway. He responded to
the prevailing intellectual disputes of his time by returning to the most traditional of Islamic
teachings and giving them new life (MacDonald, 1899).
THEOLOGY (KALAM)
Al-Ghazali’s theological writings targeted the two separate groups and their claims. Both
groups can be traced back to political movements in the formative years of Islam, which
housed theological implications. These two previously insignificant sects began to gain political
momentum and influence in al-Ghazali’s time, necessitating scholarly refutation. Al-Ghazali
rose to this challenge and had three key impacts in the realm of theology (Nofal, 1993):



He conclusively refuted Mu’tazilite22 arguments using Ash’arite23 views;
He strengthened Sunni Islam by systematically debating tenets of Shi’a Islam, with the
infallibility of their Imams being the most significant of his refutations, and;
He authorised greater diversity into Sunni creed by clearly defining its bounds.
As Ash‘arite theology was born from the criticism of Mu‘tazilite rationalistic theology, the two
schools have much in common but are not without some fundamental differences. One
difference that is too abstract to delve into, was their understanding of God’s Attributes and
His Essence. Another was the seemingly contradictory relationship between God’s absolute
Power and the free will of man; Mu’tazilites gave some level of power to man for deciding
upon and producing their acts, while al-Ghazali maintained the harmony between God's
Omnipotence and our own responsibility for our acts. Thus, the Mu‘tazilites discuss the Unity
of God and His Acts from the viewpoint of human reason, but al-Ghazali does so on the basis
that God is beyond human reason and capacity.
At al-Ghazali’s time, Shi’ites had growing political influence, controlling a region of the Islamic
world under the Fatimid Caliphate, which was in direct conflict with the Sunni Abbasid
Caliphate. As a result, military and intellectual confrontation flared up between the Sunnis and
the Shi‘ites. One of the most obtrusive Shi’ite groups at his time was called the Isma’ilis, who
went so far as to arrange the assignation of those in positions of influence against them. AlGhazali wrote a series of works to counter their doctrines, the most important of which was
Fada'ih al-Batiniya wa-Fada'il al-Mustazhiriya (The Infamies of the Esotericists 24 and the
Virtues of the Exotericists) and proceeded, in the spirit of refutation, to develop a clearer
statement of their principles than they themselves had expressed. In it, he ‘exposed and
refuted their secret doctrines with devastating force’ (Murad, 2014). He accepted the
principles of the Isma’ilis regarding the need for a doctrine and for an infallible teacher, but
turned this against them by pointing out that such a teacher could only be the Prophet
22
Mu’tazila in Arabic: A deviant school of Islamic theology based solely on reason and rational thought.
Ash’ariyya in Arabic: One of the two mainstream schools of Islamic theology (the other being
Maturidi) based on a nuanced balance between revelation and reason.
24
Here al-Ghazali is specifically referring to Batinism, which is a principle within the Isma’ili branch of
Shi’ism which claims that the interior meaning of things is reserved for their Imams who they must
follow.
23
Muhammad. More basically, however, he rejected the general scepticism towards reason
implicit in their argument and their reduction of faith to blind conformism (Nofal, 1993).
Other works by al-Ghazali in the field of theology, arguably aimed at a wider audience, include
the largely popular Al-Maqṣad al-Asna fi Sharah Asmaʾ Allahu al-Husna (The Best Means in
Explaining God's Beautiful Names) and certain parts of the Ihya’ Ulum al-Din (The Revival of
Religious Sciences), one of the most widely read books in Islam, which will be further discussed
in his contribution to Sufism.
Al-Ghazali strongly held the opinion that common people should not delve too deeply into the
sciences of theology, as many of the arguments are constructed as responses to problematic
views. He argued that the layman may understand the questions but fail to understand the
response, thus leaving his creed deficient or corrupted. In one such description, he likens the
layman to someone who should not dare engage in activities beyond their skills:
‘A clumsy and stupid person must be kept away from the seashore, not the
proficient swimmer; and a child must be prevented from handling a snake,
not the skilled snake charmer.’ (McCarthy, 2006)
To emphasise his disapproval towards laymen delving into scholastic theology, al-Ghazali
dedicated an entire work specifically titled Iljam al-ʿAwamm ʿan ʿIlm al-Kalam (Warding off the
Masses from the Sciences of Theology). It also aimed to put to rest the age-old debate
between speculative theology (employing rationality) and figurative interpretation (of
revelation), refocusing the common Muslim on the simplistic beauty of the Islamic doctrine as
learned and transmitted by the early Muslim community. This work also maps out simple
criteria for determining orthodox faith and explains why delving into theological discourse
should be avoided. In it, al-Ghazali argues against sectarianism and excommunication (takfir),
demonstrating how many misunderstood groups could be considered to fit into orthodox
Islam. Thus, through this work, al-Ghazali helped contribute to the pluralistic nature of Sunni
Islam.
Shaykh Abdal-Hakim Murad explains how al-Ghazali’s contribution to theology could have
been the turning point for the Muslim world, uniting it upon a single creed, were it not for the
events that took place following his death:
‘After the success of the fifth-century Sunni revival, when Sunnism seemed at
last to have become a fully coherent system, Shi’ism went into a slow eclipse.
This decline in Shi’i fortunes was only arrested after the mid-seventh century,
once the Mongol hordes under Genghis Khan had invaded and obliterated the
central lands of Islam… In the wake of this tidal wave of mayhem, newlyconverted Turcoman nomads moved in, who, with the Sunni ulama of the
cities dead, and a general atmosphere of fear, turbulence, and Messianic
expectation in the air, turned readily to extremist forms of Shi’i belief. The
triumph of Shi’ism in Iran, a country once loyal to Sunnism, dates back to that
painful period.’ (Murad, 2014)
PHILOSOPHY (FALASIFA)
While al-Ghazali was a professor at the Nizamiyya Institute in Baghdad, he extended his search
for knowledge into the hotly debated field of philosophy. Classical Greek philosophy, which
had been translated into Arabic only a century before (Burnett, 2013), offered insights into the
sciences of logic and rhetoric that had been developed to a notably high degree. Al-Ghazali
saw the great potential in these fields but was sceptical of their approach to theology. Some of
their religious views challenged points of Islamic doctrine and al-Ghazali realised that, while on
an individual level systematic philosophical arguments could be dealt with through faith, on a
scholarly level they required rational counter-arguments.
He spent the next two years reading the works of the philosophers and a third of it organising
his own thoughts. The fundamental problem facing al-Ghazali was that of reconciling
philosophy with religion. While the art of reason is inextricably linked to both, al-Ghazali
concluded that many of the assertions about faith in Greek philosophy contained underlying
logical fallacies.
Al-Ghazali divided the philosophers into three categories, rejecting the first two – the nihilists
who deny the existence of God, and the naturalist who believe in a powerful and wise being,
but reject life after death – whilst giving extensive attention to the third category, the theists,
which include the classical Greek philosophers of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle; as well as the
Islamic philosophers: Ibn Sina25 and al-Farabi26. Al-Ghazali saw much benefit in their work,
namely: mathematics, logic, rhetoric, physics, politics and ethics; but claimed that their
discussions in the field of theology could not be accepted without care and prudence. He
claimed that in these areas they did not employ the kinds of proofs demanded by their own
logic in coming to their conclusions. Through such an argument, al-Ghazali defended the role
of logic and reason in Islamic theology (McLean, 2001).
Al-Ghazali argued strenuously for an open attitude to truth wherever it appeared but warned
against the dangers of either total acceptance or total rejection of the philosophers.
‘Truth is not contaminated by being juxtaposed to errors, nor does it become
false when included in books which contain errors on other matters.’
(McLean, 2001)
As a prelude to his attacks on philosophy, he first set out to master the known philosophies of
the time, succeeding with his book Maqasid al-Falasifa (The Aims of the Philosophers), in
which he summarised fundamentals of philosophical thought that had been hitherto
surrounded by mystery. This work later became known as a definitive handbook of philosophy
and was referenced quite heavily in the West during the Middle Ages (McLean, 2001). AlGhazali's intent, however, was to merely lay the groundwork for his decisive attack on
philosophy which he carried out in Tahafut al-Falasifa27 (The Incoherence of the Philosophers).
In the Tahafut, al-Ghazali summarised his opposition to the philosophers in twenty major
25
Known in the West as Avicenna.
Known in the West as Alpharabius.
27
Later referred to simply as the Tahafut.
26
points, dealing with God, the universe and man. Having mastered logic, al-Ghazali accepts
those points that stem from sound reasoning and valid assumptions, and rejects those that are
derived from assumptions that are blatantly un-Islamic (Nofal, 1993). The three most
significant of these assumptions were that:



The world existed eternally;
The resurrection is to be one of souls without bodies, and;
God is only capable of grasping universals but not particulars (McCarthy, 2006).
The Tahafut caused a great stir and had a profound effect in the Islamic world. Its influence
was even felt as far afield as Christian Europe and has come to be known today as one of
history’s greatest works in the field of philosophy (MacDonald, 1899).
Through his clearly articulated explanations and refutations of previously complex
philosophical discourse, which had once necessitated long training and specialised vocabulary,
al-Ghazali brought philosophical theology within the range of the ordinary mind (MacDonald,
1899). He held the opinion that the time for simplistic study of religion had passed and that the
views, arguments and fallacies of the philosophers should be made somewhat accessible to
the general public in order to save religion. Although he exercised some caution, it fell short of
the degree expected by some of his contemporaries and successors, from whom he suffered
some level of condemnation (McCarthy, 2006).
Despite several attempts to defend philosophy by contemporaries of al-Ghazali, in particular
Ibn Rushd28 in his direct response satirically named Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the
Incoherence) some decades later, al-Ghazali had succeeded in marginalising and weakening
philosophical influence on the Sunni world, and thereby terminating the tradition of Islamic
work in Greek philosophy (McLean, 2001).
In addition to his immense contribution in eloquently recapitulating the opinions of the Greek
philosophers, al-Ghazali demonstrated that all areas of conflict between them and the Islamic
faith were no less than a result of the philosophers themselves not adhering to their stringent
definitions of logic and reason. He therefore managed to maintain and defend the importance
of logic and reason in the Islamic tradition without in any way detracting from the importance
and authority of revelation. In his own words:
‘…in the writings of the philosophers, if what is said is reasonable in itself and
corroborated by apodictic proof and not contrary to the Qur’an and Sunna 29,
then why should it be shunned and rejected? If we were to open this door
and aim at forgoing every truth which had been first formulated by the mind
of one in error, we would have to forgo much of what is true.’ (McCarthy,
2006)
28
Known in the West as Averroes.
Sunna: Lit. ‘custom, usage, tradition’, it is a practice established by the Prophet's example, often
complementing the Qur’an.
29
SUFISM (TASAWWUF)
A distinction needs to be made between the Sufism of al-Ghazali and some of the various
brands of Sufism today. Al-Ghazali’s support of the sufis in his time should not be taken as
a blanket endorsement of all of today’s ‘sufi’ ideologies.
Much of al-Ghazali’s journey to Sufism is described eloquently in what is often called his
‘spiritual auto-biography’ (the munqidh). He describes how he turned to the way of Sufism by
examination and exhaustion of all other paths to certainty (yaqin).
‘I knew with certainty that the sufis were masters of states, not purveyors of
works, and that I had learned all I could by way of theory. There remained,
then, only what was attainable, not by hearing and study, but by fruitional
experience and actually engaging in the way. From the sciences which I had
practiced and the methods which I had allowed in my inquiry into the two
kinds of knowledge, revealed and rational, I had already acquired a surer and
certain faith in God Most High, in the prophetic mediation of revelation, and
in the Last Day. These three fundamentals of our Faith had become deeply
rooted in my soul, not because of any specific, precisely formulated proofs,
but because of reasons and circumstances and experiences too many to list in
detail…’
‘The sufi path consists in cleansing the heart from whatever is other than
God... I concluded that the sufis are the seekers in God's Way, and their
conduct is the best conduct, and their way is the best way, and their manners
are the most sanctified. They have cleaned their hearts from other than God
and they have made them as pathways for rivers to run, carrying the
knowledge of God.’ (McCarthy, 2006)
To al-Ghazali, Sufism meant purifying the soul and turning it towards God, and as practice, the
sufi is busy in detachment from all else for the sole purpose of attachment to God alone. AlGhazali states this as:
‘The aim of their knowledge [the sufis] is to lop off the obstacles present in
the soul and to rid oneself of its reprehensible habits and vicious qualities in
order to attain thereby a heart empty of all save God and adorned with t he
constant remembrance of God.’
His most succinct summary of Sufism being:
‘…truthfulness with God Almighty and good conduct with people.’
Al-Ghazali attained early information and some understanding of Sufism through: his first
teacher, the ongoing influence of his older brother, and by reading many works of great sufis.
This form of knowledge he describes as being ‘indirect’, with verification only through trust
and reason. He realised, however, that the essence of Sufism is essentially a matter not of
knowledge, but of lived experience. Al-Ghazali then describes ‘direct’ knowledge as being
‘tasted’ or ‘savoured’, insisting upon the subjectivity of its experience and internal appreciation
(McLean, 2001). Hence, he admits that he had no true knowledge of Sufism until he himself
began to live by it, similar to how a simple description of love pales in comparison to its actual,
lived experience.
He recounts that Sufism is a path through which one experiences an intimate relationship of
love with his Creator. How this is possible can be understood through a human analogy. When
one intends to grow in love and nearness to another, some level of commonality must be
sought. He can approach them, and thus occupy similar locations in space and time; or he can
reason with them, experiencing a convergence of the intellect; or he can express emotional
sentiments, sharing in experience through empathy. Similarly, if one intends to draw near to
God, who cannot be approached in any of these human capacities (as He is Transcendent and
Formless), one must seek to purify the heart of all that is ‘ungodly’ and experience total
absorption in God through the annihilation of the self (fana’). In a practical sense this is first to
rid oneself of the ego and of undesirable qualities, such as: greed, gluttony, ostentation and
conceit. Then, it is to struggle to embody qualities praised by God, which parallel (at an
incomparably lesser capacity) the Infinite, Flawless Qualities and Attributes of God, such as:
mercy, compassion, love, justice, honesty, generosity and kindness. In this light, a gnostic once
said:
‘A sufi is not a sufi unless, were everything that is in him to be exposed on a
plate in the marketplace, he would not be ashamed of anything that came to
light.’ (ʿAttās & Badawī, 2003)
During his ascetic travels and later during his reclusive stay in Tus, al-Ghazali writes what has
come to be known as one of the greatest Islamic spiritual works of all time - The Ihya’ Ulum alDin30 (The Revival of Religious Sciences). Today, it is one of the most widely read books in
Islam, having earned the praise of the scholars and the general acceptance of the community.
Its great achievement was to bring life’s outer and inner dimension together as a useful and
comprehensive guide to every aspect of Muslim experience. Even in our world today, the Ihya’
reminds Muslims why one does certain acts insofar as prescribed worship, and how one should
go about addressing the seemingly intangible diseases of the heart and character. The Ihya’
also enters into some detail about what is discovered as one proceeds along the spiritual path,
however, the savoured experience itself, of course, remains beyond words.
The Ihya’ is an enormous corpus, composed of four parts, each having ten books. Part one
focuses on worship (‘ibada), beginning with a book on knowledge, followed by doctrine, the
five pillars31, recitation of Qur’an, litanies and the remembrance of God. Part two concerns
common habits (‘adat) and how to perform them in the manner exemplified by Prophet
Muhammad. They are: eating, drinking, marriage, earning and livelihood, the lawful and
30
31
Later referred to simply as the Ihya’.
The five pillars: Testimony of faith, prayer, charity, fasting and pilgrimage.
unlawful, companionship, seclusion, travel, music, enjoining what is right and forbidding what
is wrong and etiquette. Part three treats those things that lead to damnation – the moral vices,
beginning with the mysteries of the heart, disciplining the soul, breaking the two desires32, and
continues with books treating the evils of the tongue, anger, malice, envy, greed, miserliness,
fame, hypocrisy, arrogance, pride and ostentation. Part four concerns those things that lead to
salvation, teaching of repentance, patience, gratitude, hope, fear, poverty, love, sincerity,
truthfulness, vigilance, self-examination, meditation, death and the next life. All this is written
with such great eloquence that many scholars (most notably al-Safadi and al-Nawawi) have
reiterated:
‘If all books of Islam were lost except for the Ihya’, it would suffice for what
was lost.’
The Ihya’ is said to convey ‘all that is best and most appealing in Islam as a religion and as a
revelation of God's love for man and the heights attainable by man's love for God’ (McLean,
2001; Nofal, 1993).
Despite the Ihya’s general applicability to the masses, al-Ghazali also manages to speak quite
critically of those who claim to be scholars. Coming from such a position himself, he knew firsthand the traps and shortcomings they are most susceptible to. Accordingly, he condemns any
scholar for any desire for wealth and influence, proximity to rulers, failure to abide by his own
teachings, interest in knowledge that helps him gain in popularity and the neglect of
knowledge that might not be received favourably. Al-Ghazali also does not spare the sufis from
his criticism and attacks, as many self-proclaimed sufis had strayed far from the essence of
Sufism and only aspired to the social position that Sufism conferred on them (Nofal, 1993).
Some notable figures influenced by the Ihya’ include many of the great sufis and poets that
succeeded al-Ghazali, such as Mawlana Rumi, who used many of the allegories of the Ihya’ in
his poetry (Field, 1910), Abdallah Ibn al-Haddad (Murad A. H., 1989) and al-Nawawi (Griffel,
2009). Also, due to the universal goals of religion being to purify the soul and connect with
God, and the Ihya’s renown in achieving this, its influence was not only limited to Islam. It was
translated into Latin and Hebrew and influenced many of the scholarly texts that are still used
today in Christianity and Judaism (Burnett, 2013). In Christianity, this is primarily seen in the
works of St Thomas Aquinas, Dante and David Hume; in Judaism, he significantly influenced
Maimonides (McLean, 2001).
Al-Ghazali went on to write a number of works heavily inspired by his ascetic journey and sufi
experiences. Most notable of these were his Bidayat al-Hidaya (The Beginning of Guidance),
Kimiya-yi Sa’adah (The Alchemy of Happiness) and Ayyuha al-Walad (O beloved Son). He was
the first to present a formal description of Sufism at a time when it was being rejected as being
un-Islamic. As a result of his support, it became a widely accepted discipline and gained
momentum in mainstream Islam. Sufism, bridging the gap between the current transient world
and the world of the hereafter, was the means by which al-Ghazali reconciled the outward
laws of Islam, and the inner state of the law’s adherents (Nofal, 1993).
32
The two desires: Gluttony and lust.
Fearing that many may take his teachings to an extreme of inward focus at the expense of
outward practice, al-Ghazali stressed that his objective was not to destroy the outer sciences
or to impede people from their study. On the contrary, he strongly advocated for the balanced
approach exemplified in the practice of the Prophet Muhammad. He therefore returned again
to the formal teaching of jurisprudence (fiqh) at the end of his life alongside his informal
classes on Sufism (McLean, 2001).
SUMMARY
Al-Ghazali was an eleventh century Muslim polymath, who lived during the ‘golden age’ of
Islamic civilisation, and held an academic position of significant influence from a relatively
young age. His impact was greatest through his contribution to the political, intellectual and
spiritual controversies that faced the Islamic world at that time. Namely, the tensions
between:



Revelation and reason;
Philosophy and religion;
The outer and the inner dimensions of Islam.
Al-Ghazali responded to the first controversy by defending and clarifying classical positions of
Sunni creed, fatally weakening Shi’a doctrine through refutation and pluralising Sunni Islam by
listing its simple criteria of beliefs. Due to the rising tensions and political influence of some of
the groups he refuted, two of his academic supporters were assassinated during his time in
serving them.
He addressed the challenges posed by classical Greek philosophy by taking a balanced
approached, adopting the beneficial aspects and rejecting the inconsistencies. By
demonstrating that their un-Islamic positions were devoid of the same rationality as their
contributions in other sciences, he maintained the position of reason in Islamic belief while
allowing their contributions in other fields to benefit the body of Islamic knowledge.
The third crisis of al-Ghazali’s time was one of spiritual emptiness, as the masses were now
seeking knowledge of religion for worldly gain and losing the heart of their outward practices.
After realising that this was even present to some degree within himself, he dramatically
departed from his social and academic life. He adopted a life of asceticism, seclusion and ‘selfpurification’ for many years until he returned to society to teach what he came to believe his
people, and indeed all Muslims since, needed to hear. This was when he prescribed teachings
of Sufism as the necessary ailment to the spiritual crisis that came from religious practise and
legality at the neglect of the inner, spiritual reality.
In this manner, al-Ghazali, the ‘proof of Islam’ (hujjat al-Islam) and ‘reviver’ (mujaddid) of the
fifth Islamic century, responded to the needs of his time and people. Through his formidable
intellect, passion for knowledge and deep love for God, he authored works in a way that has
allowed them to remain alive and influential throughout time, still forming major parts of
curriculums in Islamic studies around the world over nine centuries later.
MAIN LITERARY WORKS OF AL-GHAZALI
THEOLOGY
Al-Iqtisad fi'I-i`tiqad (The Middle Path in Theology): An influential contribution to the core texts
of the Ash’arite school of theology.
Fada'ih al-batiniya wa-fada'il al-mustazhiriya (The Infamies of the Esotericists and the Virtues
of the Exotericists): A clear explanation and refutation of the beliefs of the Shi’a sect
who claimed to need an infallible Imam.
Al-maqṣad al-asna fi sharah asmāʾ Allāhu al-ḥusna (The best means in explaining Allah's
Beautiful Names): A profound contribution to understanding and appreciating the 99
Names and Attributes of God.
Iljam al-ʿawwam ʿan ʿilm al-kalam (Warding off the Masses from Sciences of Theology): AlGhazali wards off the simple-minded from corrupting their faith and lays an old
argument between speculative theologians and traditionalists to rest. He also outlined
the orthodox creed and helped contribute to the plural nature of Sunni Islam.
PHILOSOPHY
Mi‘yar al-‘ilm (The Standard Measure of Knowledge): A summary account of Aristotelian logic.
Maqaṣid al-falasifa (Aims of the Philosophers): A precise summary of Greek and Islamic
philosophy.
Tahafut al-falasifa (Incoherence of the Philosophers): A refutation of Greek and Islamic
philosophy.
SUFISM
Ihya’ ulum al-din (The Revival of Religious Sciences): Widely regarded as the greatest work of
Muslim spirituality, and perhaps the most read work in the Muslim world, after the
Qurʾān.
Bidayat al-hidaya (The Beginning of Guidance): A highly motivational manual written towards
the end of his life that details the fundamentals of acquiring guidance.
Kimiya-yi sa’adah (The Alchemy of Happiness): A short Persian work summarising the Ihya’.
Ayyuha al-walad (O beloved Son): Also translated as ‘Letter to a Disciple’, it was written at the
request of a disciple for a summary of all of his teachings.
Al-Munqidh min al-ḍalal (The Deliverer from Error): Al-Ghazali’s spiritual auto-biography.
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