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AP PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERM EXAM REVIEW Prologue: Psychology’s Roots Definition of Psychology The science of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings) Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s Perspectives Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s Perspectives A lot depends on your viewpoint Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s Subfields Basic Research Personality psychologists investigate our persistent traits Social psychologists explore how we view and affect one another Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s Subfields Applied Research Industrial/organizational psychologists study and advise on behavior in the workplace Clinical psychologists study, assess, and treat people with psychological disorders Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychiatry A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders Practiced by physicians who sometimes use medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychotherapy Prologue: Common Terminology Clinical Psychologist Diagnose and treat patients Academic Psychologist Conduct Research Prologue: Contemporary Psychology People to know & Why Plato – development due to nature Aristotle – development due to nurture Wilhelm Wundt – First Psychology Lab William James – Wrote first text book Sigmund Freud – Founder of Psychoanalysis Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 1 Thinking Critically with Psychological Science James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers The Need for Psychological Science Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize observations and imply testable hypotheses The Need for Psychological Science Theory an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations Hypothesis a testable prediction often implied by a theory The Need for Psychological Science The Need for Psychological Science Hindsight Bias we tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon Overconfidence we tend to think we know more than we do The Need for Psychological Science Critical Thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions examines assumptions discerns hidden values evaluates evidence questioning attitude The Amazing Randi--Skeptic The Need for Psychological Science Operational Definition a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables Example intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures The Need for Psychological Science Replication repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstances usually with different participants in different situations Description Psychologists describe behavior using case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation Decription Surveys – Must be aware of the wording effect Wording effect is when specific words are chosen so as to achieve a desired effect. For only $19.95 –but we all know it’s really $20 but hearing it’s less than $20 makes us look on it more favorably. Description Case Study Psychologists study one or more individuals in great depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all May be unrepresentative of what is generally true Is language uniquely human? Description Random Sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion Population all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study Illusory Correlation Illusory Correlation the perception of a relationship where none exists Conceive Adopt Do not adopt Do not conceive confirming evidence disconfirming evidence disconfirming evidence confirming evidence Correlation Correlation Coefficient a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Correlation coefficient r = +.37 Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) Correlation Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) No relationship (0.00) Perfect negative correlation (-1.00) Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations Correlation Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships (1) Low self-esteem could cause Depression or (2) Depression could cause Low self-esteem or Low self-esteem (3) Distressing events or biological predisposition could cause and Depression Experimentation Experiment an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors Experimentation Placebo an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent Double-blind Procedure both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo commonly used in drug-evaluation studies Experimentation Experimental Condition the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable Control Condition the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment Experimentation Random Assignment assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups Experimentation Independent Variable the experimental factor that is manipulated the variable whose effect is being studied Dependent Variable the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process Statistical Reasoning Mode Mean the most frequently occurring score in a distribution the arithmetic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores Median the middle score in a distribution half the scores are above it and half are below it Statistical Reasoning Measures of Variation Range Standard Deviation the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution; most affected by a few extreme scores a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean Statistical Significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 2 Neuroscience, Genetics and Behavior James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Neural Communication Neural Communication Action Potential a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane Threshold the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Neural Communication Synapse [SIN-aps] junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft Neurotransmitters chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons when released by the sending neuron, neuro-transmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse Neural Communication Acetylcholine [ah-seat-el-KO-leen] a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction Endorphins [en-DOR-fins] “morphine within” natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure Neural Communication Neural Communication Neurotransmitter molecule Receptor site on receiving neuron Receiving cell membrane Agonist mimics neurotransmitter Antagonist blocks neurotransmitter The Nervous System Nervous system Central (brain and spinal cord) Peripheral Autonomic (controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands) Skeletal (controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles) Sympathetic (arousing) Parasympathetic (calming) The Nervous System Neurons in the brain connect with one another to form networks Neural Networks Inputs Outputs The brain learns by modifying certain connections in response to feedback interconnected neural cells with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning The Nervous System Nerves neural “cables” containing many axons part of the peripheral nervous system connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs Sensory Neurons neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system The Nervous System Interneurons Motor Neurons CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands Somatic Nervous System the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles The Brain Lesion tissue destruction a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue The Brain Brainstem the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull responsible for automatic survival functions Medulla [muh-DUL-uh] base of the brainstem controls heartbeat and breathing The Brain The Brain Reticular Formation a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss] the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla The Brain Cerebellum [sehr-uhBELL-um] the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance The Brain Limbic System a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la] two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion The Brain Hypothalamus neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities eating drinking body temperature helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland is linked to emotion Major link between the nervous system and endocrine system The Limbic System The Cerebral Cortex Frontal Lobes Parietal Lobes include the sensory cortex Occipital Lobes involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field Temporal Lobes include the auditory areas The Cerebral Cortex The Cerebral Cortex Motor Cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements Sensory Cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations The Cerebral Cortex Visual and Auditory Cortex The Cerebral Cortex Aphasia Broca’s Area impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding) an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech Wernicke’s Area an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression Specialization and Integration Brain Reorganization Plasticity the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development Our Divided Brain Corpus callosum Corpus Callosum large band of neural fibers connects the two brain hemispheres carries messages between the hemispheres Our Divided Brain The information highway from the eye to the brain Split Brain “What word did you see?” or “Look at the dot.” Two words separated by a dot are momentarily projected. “Point with your left hand to the word you saw.” Brain Structures and their Functions The Endocrine System Endocrine System the body’s “slow” chemical communication system a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream Neural and Hormonal Systems Hormones Adrenal [ah-DREEN-el] Glands chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress Pituitary Gland under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 4 The Developing Person James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Prenatal Development and the Newborn Developmental Psychology a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span Major question: Continuity vs. Stages Prenatal Development and the Newborn Life is sexually transmitted Prenatal Development and the Newborn Zygote Embryo the fertilized egg enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division develops into an embryo the developing human organism from 2 weeks through 2nd month Fetus the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth Prenatal Development and the Newborn 40 days 45 days 2 months 4 months Prenatal Development and the Newborn Teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking symptoms include misproportioned head Prenatal Development and the Newborn Rooting Reflex tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheek Preferences human voices and faces facelike images--> smell and sound of preferred mother Prenatal Development and the Newborn Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation Prenatal Development and the Newborn Having habituated to the old stimulus, newborns preferred gazing at a new one Infancy and Childhood: Physical Development Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior relatively uninfluenced by experience Between 3-6 years old neural networks, massive neural network growth in frontal lobes At birth 3 months 15 months Cortical Neurons Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Typical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena Birth to nearly 2 years Sensorimotor Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing) •Object permanence •Stranger anxiety About 2 to 6 years Preoperational Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning •Pretend play •Egocentrism •Language development About 7 to 11 years Concrete operational •Conservation Thinking logically about concrete •Mathematical events; grasping concrete analogies transformations and performing arithmetical operations About 12 through adulthood Formal operational Abstract reasoning •Abstract logic •Potential for moral reasoning Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development Egocentrism Theory of Mind the inability of the preoperational child to take another’s point of view people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental statesabout their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict Autism a disorder that appears in childhood Marked by deficient communication, social interaction and understanding of others’ states of mind Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development Schema a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information Assimilation interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development Accommodation adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information Cognition All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating Social Development Stranger Anxiety fear of strangers that infants commonly display beginning by about 8 months of age Attachment an emotional tie with another person shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation Social Development Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother Social Development Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers. Social Development Critical Period an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development Imprinting the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life Social Development Basic Trust (Erik Erikson) a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers Self-Concept a sense of one’s identity and personal worth Social Development: Child-Rearing Practices Authoritarian Permissive parents impose rules and expect obedience “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.” submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use little punishment Authoritative both demanding and responsive set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open discussion Adolescence Primary Sex Characteristics Secondary Sex Characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics female--breast and hips male--voice quality and body hair Menarche (meh-NAR-key) body structures that make sexual reproduction possible ovaries--female testes--male external genitalia first menstrual period Spermarche (Sperm-AR-key) first ejaculation Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder Postconventional level Morality of abstract principles: to affirm agreed-upon rights and personal ethical principles Conventional level Morality of law and social rules: to gain approval or avoid disapproval Preconventional level Morality of self-interest: to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the self to the wider social world. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Approximate age Stage Description of Task Infancy (1st year) Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust. Toddler (2nd year) Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. Preschooler (3-5 years) Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Elementary (6 yearspuberty) Competence vs. inferiority Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Approximate age Stage Description of Task Adolescence (teens into 20’s) Identity vs. role confusion Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. Young Adult (20’s to early 40’s) Intimacy vs. isolation Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated. Middle Adult (40’s to 60’s) Generativity vs. stagnation The middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Late Adult (late 60’s and up) Integrity vs. despair When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure. Adolescence: Social Development Identity one’s sense of self the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles Intimacy the ability to form close, loving relationships a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood Adulthood: Physical Development Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Alzheimer’s Disease a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning Heredity plays a role Adulthood: Cognitive Development 100 Percent 90 of names recalled 80 Older age groups have poorer performance After three introductions 70 60 50 40 After two introductions 30 20 After one 10 introductions 0 18 40 50 60 Age group 70 Recalling new names introduced once, twice, or three times is easier for younger adults than for older ones (Crook & West, 1990). Adulthood: Cognitive Development Crystallized Intelligence one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills tends to increase with age Fluid Intelligence ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly tends to decrease during late adulthood Adulthood: Social Changes Percentage “satisfied” with life as a whole 80 60 40 20 0 15 25 35 45 Age group 55 65+ Multinational surveys show that age differences in life satisfaction are trivial (Inglehart, 1990). Sensation Sensation a process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy Perception a process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events Sensation Our sensory and perceptual processes work together to help us sort out complext processes Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (6th Ed) Chapter 5 Sensation James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Sensation Bottom-Up Processing analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information Top-Down Processing information processing guided by higher-level mental processes as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations Sensation- Thresholds 100 Percentage of correct detections 75 50 Subliminal stimuli 25 0 Subliminal Low Absolute threshold Intensity of stimulus Medium When stimuli are below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness Sensation- Thresholds Weber’s Law- to perceive as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage light intensity- 8% weight- 2% tone frequency- 0.3% Difference Threshold- the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference Sensory adaptation- diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation Sensation- Thresholds Absolute Threshold minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time Difference Threshold minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time just noticeable difference (JND) Vision Vision Accommodation- the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina Retina- the light-sensitive inner serface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information Retina’s Reaction Receptors Rods to Light- peripheral retina detect black, white and gray twilight or low light Cones near center of retina fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit conditions Vision- Physical Properties of Waves Short wavelength=high frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds) Great amplitude (bright colors, loud sounds) Long wavelength=low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds) Small amplitude (dull colors, soft sounds) Vision Farsighted Vision Nearsighted Vision Normal Vision Audition Audition Frequency the sense of hearing the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time Pitch a tone’s highness or lowness depends on frequency Visual Information Processing Parallel Processing simultaneous processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; allows humans to speedily recognize familiar objects Audition- The Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window innermost part of the ear, contining the cochlea, semicurcular canals, and vestibular sacs Cochlea coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; changes movement caused by sound waves into nerve impulses. Touch Skin Sensations pressure only skin sensation with identifiable receptors warmth cold pain Smell Olfactory nerve Olfactory bulb Nasal passage Receptor cells in olfactory membrane Body Position and Movement Kinesthesis the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts Vestibular Sense the sense of body movement and position including the sense of balance Pain Gate-Control Theory theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain “gate” opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers “gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 6 Perception James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Perceptual Organization: Grouping Principles Perceptual Organization Figure and Ground--organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground) Perceptual Organization: Gestalt Grouping the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups Grouping Principles proximity--group nearby figures together similarity--group figures that are similar continuity--perceive continuous patterns closure--fill in gaps connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are seen as unit when connected Perceptual Organization: Closure Gestalt grouping principles are at work here. Perceptual Organization: Depth Perception Depth Perception ability to see objects in three dimensions allows us to judge distance Binocular cues retinal disparity images from the two eyes differ closer the object, the larger the disparity convergence neuromuscular cue two eyes move inward for near objects Perceptual Organization: Depth Perception Monocular Cues (cont.) relative height relative motion closer objects seem to move faster linear perspective higher objects seen as more distant parallel lines converge with distance relative brightness closer objects appear brighter Perceptual Organization: Depth Perception Monocular Cues relative size interposition closer object blocks distant object relative clarity smaller image is more distant hazy object seen as more distant texture coarse --> close fine --> distant Perceptual Organization: Depth Perception Visual Cliff Perceptual Organization Perceptual Constancy Perceptual Constancy perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal image change color shape size Is There Extrasensory Perception? Extrasensory Perception controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input telepathy clairvoyance precognition Parapsychology the study of paranormal phenomena ESP psychokinesis Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 7 States of Consciousness James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Waking Consciousness Consciousness our awareness of ourselves and our environments Perceptual Organization: Size-Distance Relationship Perception Selective Attention conscious awareness on a particular stimulus focus of Sleep and Dreams REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep recurring sleep stage vivid dreams “paradoxical sleep” muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active Sleep periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms periodic physiological fluctuations Circadian Rhythm the biological clock regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle, such as of wakefulness and body temperature Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 8 Learning James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Night Terrors and Nightmares Sleep stages 1 2 3 REM 4 1 occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4 high arousal-appearance of being terrified Nightmares Occur during REM sleep Awake 0 Night Terrors 2 3 4 5 6 Hours of sleep 7 Learning Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience; experience is the most crucial ingredient in all learning. Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning We learn to associate two stimuli Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Before Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) UCR (salivation) During Conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation After Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCR (salivation) CS (tone) CR (salivation) Classical Conditioning Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced Extinction When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction. 140 Applications of Classical Conditioning 141 John B. Watson Brown Brothers Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom. Applications of Classical Conditioning 142 1. 2. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (19041990) elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect developed behavioral technology Operant Chamber Skinner Box chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer contains devices to record responses Operant Conditioning Reinforcer any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Shaping operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal Punishment Punishment aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows powerful controller of unwanted behavior Punishment Cognition and Operant Conditioning Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective Extrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments Biological Predisposition Photo: Bob Bailey Instinctive Drift Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors. Marian Breland Bailey 150 Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 9 Memory James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Memory Memory persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event; stored in long-term memory Encoding Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental information well-learned information space time frequency word meanings we can learn automatic processing reading backwards Encoding Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious Rehearsal conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage effort Encoding Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better longterm retention than massed practice Operant Conditioning Storage: Retaining Information Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Storage: Short-Term Memory Percentage 90 who recalled consonants 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Short-Term Memory 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2 Slightly better for auditory information than for visual information Storage: Long-Term Memory Amnesia--the loss of memory Explicit Memory memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare also called declarative memory hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage Implicit Memory retention independent of conscious recollection also called procedural memory Retrieval: Getting Information Out Recall measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank test Recognition Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test Encoding: Serial Position Effect Percent age of words recalled 90 80 Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall best the last items in a list 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Position of word in list 9 10 11 12 Retrieval Relearning memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time Priming activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 10 Thinking and Language James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Thinking Cognition mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating Cognitive Psychologists study these mental activities concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formation Thinking Algorithm methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone--use of heuristics Thinking Concept mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people Prototype mental image or best example of a category matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin) Important in aiding in classifying objects Heuristics Availability Heuristic estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common Example: airplane crash Thinking Heuristic simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently usually speedier than algorithms more error-prone than algorithms Thinking Framing the way an issue is posed how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean? Language Language our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning Phoneme in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Language Morpheme in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) Grammar a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others Language Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language also, the study of meaning Syntax the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language Language Babbling Stage beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words Language Two-Word Stage beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development during which a child speaks in mostly two-word statements Telegraphic Speech early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words Thinking Insight Confirmation Bias sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem contrasts with strategy-based solutions tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions Fixation inability to see a problem from a new perspective impediment to problem solving