Download AP Psychology Midterm Exam Review

AP PSYCHOLOGY
MIDTERM EXAM REVIEW
Prologue:
Psychology’s Roots

Definition of Psychology

The science of behavior (what we do) and
mental processes (sensations, perceptions,
dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings)
Prologue: Contemporary
Psychology

Psychology’s Perspectives
Prologue: Contemporary
Psychology

Psychology’s Perspectives

A lot depends on your viewpoint
Prologue: Contemporary
Psychology

Psychology’s Subfields

Basic Research
 Personality
psychologists investigate our
persistent traits
 Social psychologists explore how we view
and affect one another
Prologue: Contemporary
Psychology

Psychology’s Subfields

Applied Research
 Industrial/organizational
psychologists study
and advise on behavior in the workplace
 Clinical psychologists study, assess, and treat
people with psychological disorders
Prologue: Contemporary
Psychology

Psychiatry


A branch of medicine dealing with
psychological disorders
Practiced by physicians who sometimes use
medical (for example, drug) treatments as well
as psychotherapy
Prologue: Common Terminology

Clinical Psychologist
Diagnose and treat patients

Academic Psychologist
Conduct Research
Prologue:
Contemporary Psychology

People to know & Why
 Plato
– development due to nature
 Aristotle – development due to nurture
 Wilhelm Wundt – First Psychology Lab
 William James – Wrote first text book
 Sigmund Freud – Founder of Psychoanalysis
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 1
Thinking Critically with
Psychological Science
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
The Need for Psychological Science
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the
scientific method to construct theories
that organize observations and imply
testable hypotheses
The Need for Psychological Science

Theory


an explanation using an integrated set of
principles that organizes and predicts
observations
Hypothesis


a testable prediction
often implied by a theory
The Need for Psychological Science
The Need for Psychological Science

Hindsight Bias



we tend to believe, after learning an outcome,
that we would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
Overconfidence

we tend to think we know more than we do
The Need for Psychological Science

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not
blindly accept
arguments and
conclusions
examines assumptions
 discerns hidden values
 evaluates evidence
 questioning attitude

The Amazing Randi--Skeptic
The Need for Psychological Science

Operational Definition


a statement of procedures (operations) used to
define research variables
Example
intelligence may be operationally defined as what an
intelligence test measures
The Need for Psychological Science

Replication


repeating the essence of a research study
to see whether the basic finding
generalizes to other participants and
circumstances
usually with different participants in
different situations
Description
Psychologists describe behavior using
case studies, surveys, and
naturalistic observation
Decription
Surveys – Must be aware of the wording effect
 Wording effect is when specific words are chosen
so as to achieve a desired effect.
 For only $19.95 –but we all know it’s really $20
but hearing it’s less than $20 makes us look on it
more favorably.
Description
Case Study


Psychologists study
one or more
individuals in great
depth in the hope of
revealing things true
of us all
May be
unrepresentative of
what is generally
true
Is language uniquely human?
Description

Random Sample


a sample that fairly represents a population because each
member has an equal chance of inclusion
Population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be
drawn for a study
Illusory Correlation

Illusory
Correlation

the perception of
a relationship
where none exists
Conceive
Adopt
Do not
adopt
Do not conceive
confirming
evidence
disconfirming
evidence
disconfirming
evidence
confirming
evidence
Correlation

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and
thus how well either factor predicts the other
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +.37
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations
Correlation
Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
(1)
Low self-esteem
could cause
Depression
or
(2)
Depression
could cause
Low self-esteem
or
Low self-esteem
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause
and
Depression
Experimentation

Experiment


an investigator manipulates one or more factors
(independent variables) to observe their effect
on some behavior or mental process (the
dependent variable)
by random assignment of participants the
experiment controls other relevant factors
Experimentation

Placebo


an inert substance or condition that may be administered
instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if
it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active
agent
Double-blind Procedure


both the research participants and the research staff are
ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have
received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Experimentation

Experimental Condition


the condition of an experiment that exposes participants
to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent
variable
Control Condition


the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the
experimental treatment
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the
treatment
Experimentation

Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental
and control conditions by chance
 minimizes pre-existing differences
between those assigned to the different
groups

Experimentation

Independent Variable



the experimental factor that is manipulated
the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable


the experimental factor that may change in response to
manipulations of the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process
Statistical Reasoning

Mode


Mean



the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
the arithmetic average of a distribution
obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the
number of scores
Median


the middle score in a distribution
half the scores are above it and half are below it
Statistical Reasoning
Measures of Variation

Range


Standard Deviation


the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a
distribution; most affected by a few extreme scores
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the
mean
Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained
result occurred by chance
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 2
Neuroscience, Genetics
and Behavior
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Neural Communication
Neural Communication

Action Potential



a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels
down an axon
generated by the movement of positively charged atoms
in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane
Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural
impulse
Neural Communication

Synapse [SIN-aps]



junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the
dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft
Neurotransmitters


chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between
neurons
when released by the sending neuron, neuro-transmitters
travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the
receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate
a neural impulse
Neural Communication

Acetylcholine [ah-seat-el-KO-leen]


a neurotransmitter that, among its functions,
triggers muscle contraction
Endorphins [en-DOR-fins]



“morphine within”
natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters
linked to pain control and to pleasure
Neural Communication
Neural Communication
Neurotransmitter
molecule
Receptor site on
receiving neuron
Receiving cell
membrane
Agonist mimics
neurotransmitter
Antagonist
blocks
neurotransmitter
The Nervous System
Nervous
system
Central
(brain and
spinal cord)
Peripheral
Autonomic (controls
self-regulated action of
internal organs and glands)
Skeletal (controls
voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles)
Sympathetic
(arousing)
Parasympathetic
(calming)
The Nervous System
Neurons in the brain
connect with one
another to form networks

Neural Networks


Inputs
Outputs

The brain learns by modifying
certain connections in
response to feedback
interconnected neural cells
with experience, networks
can learn, as feedback
strengthens or inhibits
connections that produce
certain results
computer simulations of
neural networks show
analogous learning
The Nervous System

Nerves




neural “cables” containing many axons
part of the peripheral nervous system
connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands,
and sense organs
Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense
receptors to the central nervous system
The Nervous System

Interneurons


Motor Neurons


CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene
between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and
glands
Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that
controls the body’s skeletal muscles
The Brain

Lesion


tissue destruction
a brain lesion is a
naturally or
experimentally
caused destruction
of brain tissue
The Brain

Brainstem



the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning
where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull
responsible for automatic survival functions
Medulla [muh-DUL-uh]


base of the brainstem
controls heartbeat and breathing
The Brain
The Brain

Reticular Formation


a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an
important role in controlling arousal
Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]


the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the
brainstem
it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the
cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and
medulla
The Brain

Cerebellum [sehr-uhBELL-um]


the “little brain”
attached to the rear of
the brainstem
it helps coordinate
voluntary movement and
balance
The Brain

Limbic System




a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border
of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres
associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and
drives such as those for food and sex
includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la]

two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of
the limbic system and are linked to emotion
The Brain

Hypothalamus

neural structure lying below
(hypo) the thalamus; directs
several maintenance activities






eating
drinking
body temperature
helps govern the endocrine
system via the pituitary gland
is linked to emotion
Major link between the nervous
system and endocrine system
The Limbic System
The Cerebral Cortex

Frontal Lobes


Parietal Lobes


include the sensory cortex
Occipital Lobes


involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making
plans and judgments
include the visual areas, which receive visual information from
the opposite visual field
Temporal Lobes

include the auditory areas
The Cerebral Cortex
The Cerebral Cortex

Motor Cortex


area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls
voluntary movements
Sensory Cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and
processes body sensations
The Cerebral Cortex
Visual and Auditory Cortex
The Cerebral Cortex

Aphasia


Broca’s Area


impairment of language, usually caused by left
hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing
speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing
understanding)
an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle
movements involved in speech
Wernicke’s Area

an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language
comprehension and expression
Specialization and Integration
Brain Reorganization

Plasticity

the brain’s capacity for modification, as
evident in brain reorganization
following damage (especially in
children) and in experiments on the
effects of experience on brain
development
Our Divided Brain
Corpus callosum

Corpus Callosum



large band of
neural fibers
connects the two
brain
hemispheres
carries messages
between the
hemispheres
Our Divided Brain

The information
highway from the
eye to the brain
Split Brain
“What word
did you see?”
or
“Look at the dot.”
Two words separated
by a dot are
momentarily projected.
“Point with
your left
hand to the
word you
saw.”
Brain Structures and their
Functions
The Endocrine System

Endocrine System


the body’s “slow”
chemical communication
system
a set of glands that
secrete hormones into
the bloodstream
Neural and Hormonal Systems

Hormones


Adrenal [ah-DREEN-el] Glands



chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the
endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect
another
a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys
secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in
times of stress
Pituitary Gland

under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates
growth and controls other endocrine glands
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 4
The Developing Person
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Prenatal Development and the
Newborn

Developmental Psychology
 a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive
and social change throughout the life span
 Major question: Continuity vs. Stages
Prenatal Development and the
Newborn
Life is sexually transmitted
Prenatal Development and the
Newborn

Zygote




Embryo


the fertilized egg
enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division
develops into an embryo
the developing human organism from 2 weeks through
2nd month
Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after
conception to birth
Prenatal Development and the
Newborn
40 days
45 days
2 months
4 months
Prenatal Development and the
Newborn

Teratogens


agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the
embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause
harm
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)


physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by
a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking
symptoms include misproportioned head
Prenatal Development and the
Newborn

Rooting Reflex


tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when
touched on the cheek
Preferences

human voices and
faces


facelike images-->
smell and sound of
preferred
mother
Prenatal Development and the
Newborn

Habituation

decreasing
responsiveness
with repeated
stimulation
Prenatal Development and the
Newborn
Having habituated to the old
stimulus, newborns preferred
gazing at a new one
Infancy and Childhood: Physical
Development

Maturation



biological growth
processes that enable
orderly changes in
behavior
relatively uninfluenced by
experience
Between 3-6 years old
neural networks, massive
neural network growth in
frontal lobes
At birth
3 months
15 months
Cortical Neurons
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Typical Age
Range
Description
of Stage
Developmental
Phenomena
Birth to nearly 2 years
Sensorimotor
Experiencing the world through
senses and actions (looking,
touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence
•Stranger anxiety
About 2 to 6 years
Preoperational
Representing things
with words and images
but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play
•Egocentrism
•Language development
About 7 to 11 years
Concrete operational
•Conservation
Thinking logically about concrete
•Mathematical
events; grasping concrete analogies
transformations
and performing arithmetical operations
About 12 through
adulthood
Formal operational
Abstract reasoning
•Abstract logic
•Potential for
moral reasoning
Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive
Development

Egocentrism


Theory of Mind


the inability of the preoperational child to take another’s
point of view
people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental statesabout their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the
behavior these might predict
Autism


a disorder that appears in childhood
Marked by deficient communication, social interaction and
understanding of others’ states of mind
Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive
Development

Schema


a concept or framework that
organizes and interprets information
Assimilation

interpreting one’s new experience in
terms of one’s existing schemas
Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive
Development

Accommodation


adapting one’s current understandings
(schemas) to incorporate new
information
Cognition

All the mental activities associated with
thinking, knowing, remembering, and
communicating
Social Development

Stranger Anxiety



fear of strangers that infants commonly display
beginning by about 8 months of age
Attachment


an emotional tie with another person
shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the
caregiver and displaying distress on separation
Social Development

Harlow’s Surrogate
Mother Experiments

Monkeys preferred contact
with the comfortable cloth
mother, even while feeding
from the nourishing wire
mother
Social Development

Monkeys raised
by artificial
mothers were
terror-stricken
when placed in
strange situations
without their
surrogate
mothers.
Social Development

Critical Period


an optimal period shortly after birth when an
organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or
experiences produces proper development
Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form
attachments during a critical period very
early in life
Social Development

Basic Trust (Erik Erikson)



a sense that the world is predictable and
trustworthy
said to be formed during infancy by
appropriate experiences with responsive
caregivers
Self-Concept

a sense of one’s identity and personal worth
Social Development: Child-Rearing
Practices

Authoritarian



Permissive


parents impose rules and expect obedience
“Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.”
submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use little
punishment
Authoritative


both demanding and responsive
set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open
discussion
Adolescence

Primary Sex Characteristics


Secondary Sex Characteristics


nonreproductive sexual characteristics
 female--breast and hips
 male--voice quality and body hair
Menarche (meh-NAR-key)


body structures that make sexual reproduction possible
 ovaries--female
 testes--male
 external genitalia
first menstrual period
Spermarche (Sperm-AR-key)

first ejaculation
Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder
Postconventional
level
Morality of abstract
principles: to affirm
agreed-upon rights and
personal ethical principles
Conventional
level
Morality of law and
social rules: to gain
approval or avoid
disapproval
Preconventional
level
Morality of self-interest:
to avoid punishment
or gain concrete rewards

As moral
development
progresses, the focus
of concern moves
from the self to the
wider social world.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial
Development
Approximate
age
Stage
Description of Task
Infancy
(1st year)
Trust vs. mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants
develop a sense of basic trust.
Toddler
(2nd year)
Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and
and doubt
do things for themselves, or they
doubt their abilities.
Preschooler
(3-5 years)
Initiative vs. guilt
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks
and carry out plans, or they feel
guilty about efforts to be independent.
Elementary
(6 yearspuberty)
Competence vs.
inferiority
Children learn the pleasure of applying
themselves to tasks, or they feel
inferior.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial
Development
Approximate
age
Stage
Description of Task
Adolescence
(teens into
20’s)
Identity vs. role
confusion
Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by
testing roles and then integrating them to
form a single identity, or they become
confused about who they are.
Young Adult
(20’s to early
40’s)
Intimacy vs.
isolation
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate
love, or they feel socially isolated.
Middle Adult
(40’s to 60’s)
Generativity vs.
stagnation
The middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family
and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Late Adult
(late 60’s and
up)
Integrity vs.
despair
When reflecting on his or her life, the older
adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or
failure.
Adolescence: Social Development

Identity



one’s sense of self
the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of
self by testing and integrating various roles
Intimacy


the ability to form close, loving relationships
a primary developmental task in late
adolescence and early adulthood
Adulthood: Physical Development

Menopause



the time of natural cessation of menstruation
also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences
as her ability to reproduce declines
Alzheimer’s Disease



a progressive and irreversible brain disorder
characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory,
reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning
Heredity plays a role
Adulthood: Cognitive
Development
100
Percent
90
of names
recalled 80
Older age groups have
poorer performance

After three
introductions
70
60
50
40
After two
introductions
30
20
After one
10 introductions
0
18
40
50
60
Age group
70
Recalling new
names introduced
once, twice, or
three times is
easier for younger
adults than for
older ones (Crook
& West, 1990).
Adulthood: Cognitive
Development

Crystallized Intelligence



one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
tends to increase with age
Fluid Intelligence


ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly
tends to decrease during late adulthood
Adulthood: Social Changes

Percentage
“satisfied”
with life
as a whole
80
60
40
20
0
15
25
35
45
Age group
55
65+
Multinational
surveys show that
age differences in
life satisfaction are
trivial (Inglehart,
1990).
Sensation

Sensation


a process by which our sensory receptors and
nervous system receive and represent stimulus
energy
Perception

a process of organizing and interpreting
sensory information, enabling us to recognize
meaningful objects and events
Sensation

Our sensory
and
perceptual
processes
work
together to
help us sort
out complext
processes
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(6th Ed)
Chapter 5
Sensation
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Sensation

Bottom-Up Processing


analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works
up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
Top-Down Processing


information processing guided by higher-level mental
processes
as when we construct perceptions drawing on our
experience and expectations
Sensation- Thresholds
100
Percentage
of correct
detections


75
50
Subliminal
stimuli
25
0
Subliminal
Low
Absolute
threshold
Intensity of stimulus
Medium
When stimuli are
below one’s absolute
threshold for conscious
awareness
Sensation- Thresholds

Weber’s Law- to perceive as different, two stimuli
must differ by a constant minimum percentage



light intensity- 8%
weight- 2%
tone frequency- 0.3%
Difference Threshold- the minimum difference between two
stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We
experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable
difference

Sensory adaptation- diminished sensitivity as a
consequence of constant stimulation
Sensation- Thresholds

Absolute Threshold


minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular
stimulus 50% of the time
Difference Threshold


minimum difference between two stimuli required for
detection 50% of the time
just noticeable difference (JND)
Vision
Vision


Accommodation- the process by which the eye’s lens
changes shape to help focus near or far objects on
the retina
Retina- the light-sensitive inner serface of the eye,
containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of
neurons that begin the processing of visual
information
Retina’s Reaction
Receptors

Rods




to Light-
peripheral retina
detect black, white and gray
twilight or low light
Cones



near center of retina
fine detail and color vision
daylight or well-lit conditions
Vision- Physical Properties of
Waves
Short wavelength=high frequency
(bluish colors, high-pitched sounds)
Great amplitude
(bright colors, loud sounds)
Long wavelength=low frequency
(reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)
Small amplitude
(dull colors, soft sounds)
Vision

Farsighted
Vision
Nearsighted
Vision
Normal
Vision
Audition

Audition


Frequency


the sense of hearing
the number of complete wavelengths that pass
a point in a given time
Pitch
a tone’s highness or lowness
 depends on frequency

Visual Information Processing

Parallel Processing

simultaneous processing of several aspects
of a problem simultaneously; allows humans
to speedily recognize familiar objects
Audition- The Ear

Middle Ear


Inner Ear


chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing
three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate
the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval
window
innermost part of the ear, contining the cochlea,
semicurcular canals, and vestibular sacs
Cochlea

coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; changes
movement caused by sound waves into nerve impulses.
Touch

Skin Sensations

pressure




only skin sensation
with identifiable
receptors
warmth
cold
pain
Smell
Olfactory
nerve
Olfactory
bulb
Nasal
passage
Receptor cells in
olfactory membrane
Body Position and Movement

Kinesthesis


the system for sensing the position and
movement of individual body parts
Vestibular Sense


the sense of body movement and position
including the sense of balance
Pain

Gate-Control Theory



theory that the spinal cord contains a
neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals
or allows them to pass on to the brain
“gate” opened by the activity of pain signals
traveling up small nerve fibers
“gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or
by information coming from the brain
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 6
Perception
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Perceptual Organization: Grouping
Principles
Perceptual Organization

Figure and Ground--organization of the visual field into
objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings
(ground)
Perceptual Organization: Gestalt

Grouping


the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into
coherent groups
Grouping Principles





proximity--group nearby figures together
similarity--group figures that are similar
continuity--perceive continuous patterns
closure--fill in gaps
connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are seen as unit
when connected
Perceptual
Organization: Closure

Gestalt
grouping
principles are
at work here.
Perceptual Organization: Depth
Perception

Depth Perception



ability to see objects in three dimensions
allows us to judge distance
Binocular cues

retinal disparity



images from the two eyes differ
closer the object, the larger the disparity
convergence


neuromuscular cue
two eyes move inward for near objects
Perceptual Organization: Depth
Perception

Monocular Cues (cont.)

relative height


relative motion


closer objects seem to move faster
linear perspective


higher objects seen as more distant
parallel lines converge with distance
relative brightness

closer objects appear brighter
Perceptual Organization: Depth
Perception

Monocular Cues

relative size


interposition


closer object blocks distant object
relative clarity


smaller image is more distant
hazy object seen as more distant
texture
coarse --> close
fine --> distant
Perceptual Organization: Depth
Perception
Visual Cliff
Perceptual Organization
Perceptual Constancy

Perceptual Constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination
and retinal image change
color
 shape
 size

Is There Extrasensory Perception?

Extrasensory Perception

controversial claim that perception can occur apart from
sensory input




telepathy
clairvoyance
precognition
Parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena


ESP
psychokinesis
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 7
States of Consciousness
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Waking Consciousness

Consciousness

our awareness of
ourselves and our
environments
Perceptual Organization: Size-Distance
Relationship
Perception

Selective Attention
conscious awareness on a
particular stimulus
focus of
Sleep and Dreams

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep



recurring sleep stage
vivid dreams
“paradoxical sleep”


muscles are generally relaxed, but other body
systems are active
Sleep

periodic, natural, reversible loss of
consciousness
Sleep and Dreams

Biological Rhythms


periodic physiological fluctuations
Circadian Rhythm


the biological clock
regular bodily rhythms that occur on a
24-hour cycle, such as of wakefulness and
body temperature
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 8
Learning
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Night Terrors and Nightmares
Sleep
stages

1
2
3
REM
4
1
occur within 2 or 3
hours of falling
asleep, usually
during Stage 4
 high arousal-appearance of
being terrified
Nightmares
 Occur during REM
sleep

Awake
0
Night Terrors
2
3
4
5
6
Hours of sleep
7
Learning

Learning

relatively
permanent change
in an organism’s
behavior due to
experience;
experience is the
most crucial
ingredient in all
learning.
Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning


organism comes to associate two stimuli
a neutral stimulus that signals an
unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a
response that anticipates and prepares for
the unconditioned stimulus
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning

We learn to
associate two
stimuli
Pavlov’s Classic Experiment
Before Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
UCR
(salivation)
During Conditioning
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
No
salivation
After Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
UCR
(salivation)
CS
(tone)
CR (salivation)
Classical Conditioning

Extinction



diminishing of a CR
in classical conditioning, when a UCS
does not follow a CS
in operant conditioning, when a
response is no longer reinforced
Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS
(tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and
eventually causes extinction.
140
Applications of Classical Conditioning
141
John B. Watson
Brown Brothers
Watson used classical
conditioning procedures to
develop advertising
campaigns for a number of
organizations, including
Maxwell House, making the
“coffee break” an American
custom.
Applications of Classical Conditioning
142
1.
2.
Former crack cocaine users should avoid
cues (people, places) associated with
previous drug use.
Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus
its taste) that affects the immune response
may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the
immune response.
Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning


type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if
followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by
punishment
Law of Effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by
favorable consequences become more likely, and
behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely
Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner (19041990)


elaborated
Thorndike’s Law of
Effect
developed
behavioral
technology
Operant Chamber

Skinner Box


chamber with a bar or
key that an animal
manipulates to obtain
a food or water
reinforcer
contains devices to
record responses
Operant Conditioning

Reinforcer


any event that strengthens the behavior it
follows
Shaping

operant conditioning procedure in which
reinforcers guide behavior toward closer
approximations of a desired goal
Punishment

Punishment


aversive event that decreases the
behavior that it follows
powerful controller of unwanted
behavior
Punishment
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning

Intrinsic Motivation


Desire to perform a behavior for its own
sake and to be effective
Extrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior due to
promised rewards or threats of
punishments
Biological Predisposition
Photo: Bob Bailey
Instinctive Drift
Biological constraints
predispose organisms to
learn associations that
are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland
(1961) showed that
animals drift towards
their biologically
predisposed instinctive
behaviors.
Marian Breland Bailey
150
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 9
Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Memory

Memory


persistence of learning over time via
the storage and retrieval of
information
Flashbulb Memory

a clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event; stored in
long-term memory
Encoding

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information




well-learned information


space
time
frequency
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing

reading backwards
Encoding

Effortful Processing


requires attention and conscious
Rehearsal

conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
 to encode it for storage

effort
Encoding

Spacing Effect

distributed practice yields better longterm retention than massed practice
Operant Conditioning
Storage:
Retaining Information

Iconic Memory



a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
a photographic or picture image memory
lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
Echoic Memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Storage:
Short-Term Memory
Percentage
90
who recalled
consonants 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Short-Term Memory



3
6
9
12
15
18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
limited in duration
and capacity
“magical” number
7+/-2
Slightly better for
auditory
information than
for visual
information
Storage:
Long-Term Memory


Amnesia--the loss of memory
Explicit Memory




memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously
know and declare
also called declarative memory
hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps
process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory


retention independent of conscious recollection
also called procedural memory
Retrieval: Getting Information
Out

Recall



measure of memory in which the person
must retrieve information learned earlier
as on a fill-in-the blank test
Recognition


Measure of memory in which the person
has only to identify items previously
learned
as on a multiple-choice test
Encoding: Serial Position Effect
Percent
age of
words
recalled
90
80
Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall
best the last items in
a list
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
Position of
word in list
9
10 11 12
Retrieval

Relearning


memory measure that assesses the
amount of time saved when learning
material a second time
Priming

activation, often unconsciously, of
particular associations in memory
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 10
Thinking and Language
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Thinking

Cognition


mental activities associated with thinking, knowing,
remembering, and communicating
Cognitive Psychologists

study these mental activities




concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgment formation
Thinking

Algorithm


methodical, logical rule or procedure that
guarantees solving a particular problem
contrasts with the usually speedier–but also
more error-prone--use of heuristics
Thinking

Concept


mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or
people
Prototype

mental image or best example of a category


matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and
easy method for including items in a category (as when
comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such
as a robin)
Important in aiding in classifying objects
Heuristics

Availability Heuristic



estimating the likelihood of events based
on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind (perhaps
because of their vividness), we presume
such events are common
Example: airplane crash
Thinking

Heuristic
simple thinking strategy that often
allows us to make judgments and solve
problems efficiently
 usually speedier than algorithms
 more error-prone than algorithms

Thinking

Framing
the way an issue is posed
 how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions and
judgments
 Example: What is the best way to
market ground beef--as 25% fat or
75% lean?

Language

Language


our spoken, written, or gestured works and
the way we combine them to communicate
meaning
Phoneme

in a spoken language, the smallest
distinctive sound unit
Language

Morpheme



in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
may be a word or a part of a word (such as a
prefix)
Grammar

a system of rules in a language that enables us to
communicate with and understand others
Language

Semantics



the set of rules by which we derive meaning from
morphemes, words, and sentences in a given
language
also, the study of meaning
Syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically
sensible sentences in a given language
Language

Babbling Stage



beginning at 3 to 4 months
the stage of speech development in which the infant
spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated
to the household language
One-Word Stage


from about age 1 to 2
the stage in speech development during which a child
speaks mostly in single words
Language

Two-Word Stage



beginning about age 2
the stage in speech development during which a child
speaks in mostly two-word statements
Telegraphic Speech

early speech stage in which the child speaks like a
telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs
and omitting “auxiliary” words
Thinking

Insight



Confirmation Bias


sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a
problem
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
tendency to search for information that confirms one’s
preconceptions
Fixation


inability to see a problem from a new perspective
impediment to problem solving