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OHTs (Grammar: Lecture 4)
Post-Modifiers (cont’d)
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come after the head noun
give further information about the head noun
can be prepositional phrases, finite clauses, or non-finite clauses
e.g.
the girls with long hair
the girls who are sitting over there
the girls sitting over there
Do Exercise 4.1, 4.2
Relative Clauses

are one common type of post-modifiers
e.g.
the girls who are sitting over there
the gash which needed medical attention
Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Restrictive relative clauses (defining relative clauses) restrict or help
to define the meaning of the head.
e.g.

The man whom (who) you met is my uncle.
The woman that you want to speak to has left.
The woman to whom you want to speak has left.
The girl who has long hair is called Mary.
Non-restrictive relative clauses (non-defining relative clauses) give
additional information but do not restrict or define the noun.
e.g.
My uncle, who is 64, still plays squash.
The girl, who has long hair, is called Mary.
He met Mary, who invited him to a party. (cf. and she invited...)
Here is John Smith, whom (who) I mentioned the other day.
Do Exercise 4.3
Common Errors in the Use of Relative Clauses: What’s wrong?
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This is the book John took it to the library.
This is the plastic stuff on which the students wrote the sentences on.
This is the plastic stuff which the students wrote the sentences.
The child who sitting in the corner has been very naughty.
The child is sitting in the corner has been very naughty.
The boy was arrested by the police was called John
Sources of Errors: Learning to Use Relative Clauses
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Interlanguage development
L1 Interference / transfer
Automatic use restricted by teaching methods
Lacking attention to different forms (form-confusion)
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Appositives
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have the same reference as the noun phrases they modify
can be phrases or clauses
If the appositive is a clause, it is normally introduced by the word
that (not which), but the word that does NOT function as a relative
pronoun.
e.g.
My sister, Helen Wilson, will travel with me.
Paul Peterson, a rock and alpine climber, was the first to
volunteer.
The belief that no one is infallible is well-founded.
I agree with the old saying that absence makes the heart grow
fonder.
Do Exercises 4.4 & 4.5
Coordination of noun phrases
Noun 1 & Noun 2:
Determiners:
Pre-modifers:
Post-modifiers:
e.g., the books and the stationery
e.g., the books and stationery in the room
e.g., the beautiful paintings and sculpture
e.g., the beautiful paintings and sculpture which
are stored in the attic…
Problems with Noun Phrases in Coordination
e.g.
frustrated and desperate men  frustrated men and desperate men
 men who are both frustrated and
desperate
old men and women
their cats and other pets
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women and old men
old men and old women
other pets and their cats
their cats and their other pets
Do Exercises 4.6, 4.7, 4.8
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Structure of the Verb Phrase
(aux 1) (aux 2) (aux 3) (aux 4) head
Main Verb
the base form
 is what we find in dictionary entries : laugh, mention, play
-s form
 adds to the base form an ending in -s : laughs, mentions, plays
-ing participle
 adds to the base form an ending in -ing: laughing, mentioning,
playing
-ed form
 adds to the base form an ending in -ed: laughed, mentioned, played
Do Exercise 4.9
The Sequence of Auxiliaries
Are the following acceptable verb phrases?
will may go
should been going
will be going
have being done
can should do
will is go
have been eaten
can be being done
[1] modal auxiliary, followed by base form
e.g. may phone, can call, shall do
[2] perfect have, followed by -ed participle
e.g. have phoned, has called, have done
[3] progressive be, followed by -ing participle
e.g. was phoning, is calling, are doing
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[4] passive be, followed by -ed participle
e.g. was phoned, is called, are done

If we choose to use auxiliaries, they must appear in the following
sequence :
(modal) (perfect auxiliary have) (progressive auxiliary be) (passive
auxiliary be) head
e.g.
will call
will be phoning
have been phoned
has been phoning
can be phoned
can be being done
will have been being done
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Finite Verb Phrases
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
A finite verb is a verb that carries a contrast in tense, and may be
marked for person and number (of the subject).
In a finite verb phrase, the first or only verb is finite, and the other
verbs are non-finite.
e.g.
We play football every day.
He drinks water every day.
I am doing my homework.
She will go to church tomorrow.
Tenses:
 Denoting the time at/in which a situation being described
occurs.
 past, present, future
Past (time)
Present (now)
-ed (as the most common Zero marker
marker)
used to
would
Future (upcoming)
Added with
 The suffix ~s
 An auxiliary, e.g., will, shall
 Progressive form of ‘verb-tobe’, i.e., ~ing
Start Here [Week 5]
He showed me the book. (past)
He shows me the book. (present)
He will show me the book. (future)
He is going to show me the book. (future)
He is to show me the book
Person markers: first persons, second person, third persons
He talks fast. (third person, singular)
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They talk_ very fast. (third person, plural)
You talk_ very fast. (second person, singular/plural)
We talk_ very fast. (first person, plural)
I talk_ very fast. (first person, singular
Non-Finite Verb Phrases
 In a non-finite verb phrase, all verbs are non-finite.
 There are three types of non-finite verb phrases, the to infinitive, the ing participle, and the -ed participle.
 Non-finite verb phrases normally do not occur as the verb phrase of
an independent sentence. That is, they are always embedded in
sentences which carry finite verbs, also called main verbs.
 They don’t normally carry any person, tense and number markers
e.g.
He was [main, finite] afraid to predict [non-finite] the next day's
weather.
I am happy to see you.
Having stayed in their house, I can remember how frequently they
quarrelled.
Walking along the beach, I saw John.
The new system, described in a recent report, provides criteria for
evaluating scientific priorities.
Written on bamboo tablets, the texts are mainly lists of ....
Aspect
 Referring to the way how a speaker or a writer sees the TIME
of a situation being described by the verb
 Usually the time is viewed IN RELATION TO the present
 Two basic aspects: progressive and perfect
Progressive
Represented by the structure of:
Verb-to-be + an ~ing participle
The situation is in progress.
I am reading a book.
We are all singing.
You are eating my noodles.
I will soon finish reading the book.
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The aspect suggests that the
situation will soon cease at some We are singing now and will stop
point now or in the near future.
doing it when dinner starts.
Perfect
Present Perfect
I have read the book.
We have sung a song.
Aux have + an ~ed participle
You have eaten my noodles.
The situation occurred sometime I have lost my wallet. [That is
ago and it leads to the present why] I need to borrow some money
situation.
from you.
The situation occurred sometime They have been at odds with each
ago and may extend to the present. other form a long time. [They still
don’t talk to each other much.]
The extension is stressed.
I have always told you to stay away
from him.
The situation is considered to recur I have phoned him every day since
sometime now.
he fell sick.
Tense + aspect
An aspect can be coupled with a tense (or viewed vice versa).
Past perfect (in a past context)
I had told you before we talked to The action took place in a past-time
the manager.
frame. I’m basically telling a past
story.
I was washing the dishes when the I’m telling a story which took place
phone rang.
at home at some point in the past.
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Present perfect (in a present
frame)
I have told you. That’s why I am I’m describing what I’m doing at
throwing away the clothes.
this moment. This present moment
is somehow related to a past action.
But, the focus is on the present.
Future perfect (in a future
context)
We will have arrived in Rome by I am describing an action which by
then. We will do something there my estimation will be finished at a
in the City.
particular point in future time.
That action may have some
implication on a subsequent action
in a future point in time. Basically,
we are talking about the future.
Common problems
 Why are students always confused when they use the two aspects of
past perfect and present perfect?
 What impact does the following rule have on students’ learning of
tenses: ‘Use the perfect tense when you see the word ‘recently’
used in the sentence’? Is this a prescriptive or a descriptive rule?
What is wrong with the teaching of this rule?
Do Exercises 4.11, 4.12
Mood
 refers to distinctions in the form of the verb that express the attitude
of the speaker toward/about the situation/event described by the verb.
 Finite verb phrases have three moods: indicative, imperative and
subjunctive.
Indicative Mood
 is subdivided into declarative, interrogative and exclamative moods
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Declarative Mood
e.g. I love you.
You are happy.
Interrogative Mood
e.g. Do you like chocolates?
Have you finished?
What do you like?
Exclamative Mood
e.g. What a lively day it is!
What a heavy coat you are wearing!
Imperative Mood
 has the base form
e.g.
Do this.
Stop them.
Go.
Subjunctive Mood
 is subdivided into present subjunctive and past subjunctive,
although the difference between the two forms is not one of tense
Present Subjunctive
 has the base form
 is used in that-clauses after the expression of such notions as demand
or request
e.g.
We demand that he (should) (not) take the witness stand.
I accept your wish that my secretary omit this discussion from the
minutes
I move that the meeting be adjourned.
Past Subjunctive
 is used chiefly to convey that the speaker is not sure that the situation
will happen or is happening
e.g.
If I were you, I would leave.
I wish you were here.
If he were to be appointed, I would leave.
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Do Exercises 4.21 & 4.22
Passive & Active Construction of Verb Phrases
I am shocked by the news.
He was told the story.
They have been helped.
Verb construction vs verb-turned-adjectives
I was shocked when I heard the news. (passive adjective)
I am excited. (passive adjective)
The book interests me a lot. It is really an interesting book. (active
adjective)
Do Exercises 4.14, 4.15 & 4.16
What could some problems be with the choice of the passive & active
forms of verb-as adjectives?
I am interesting.
I am very exciting.
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Start here [Week 6]
Exercise 4.21 Item 3:
Heaven forbid that we should interfere in the dispute.
 In terms of the mood: the form is realized in the
present subjunctive mood because it is realized in the
base form ‘forbid’ though the subject itself appears as
a third person singular
 In terms of the choice of this mood: The sentence
represents more of a request / a prayer to Heaven (as
God). It is something close to Heaven please forbid
that we should do this.
Phrasal Verb
 consists of a verb and a particle, which is an adverb in
the form of a preposition, whose meaning can usually
be taken literally
 Phrasal verbs are subdivided into transitive phrasal
verbs and intransitive phrasal verbs.
Transitive Phrasal Verb
 requires an object to complete the sentence
 The particle can come before or after the object.
 If the object is a pronoun, the particle normally comes
after the object but it sometimes also appears after the
object.
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e.g. All the students have handed in their essays.
All the students have handed their essays in.
All the students have handed them in.
Can I put away the dishes now?
Can I put the dishes away now?
Can I put them away now?
Intransitive Phrasal Verb
 does not require an object to complete the sentence
e.g. I give up.
The discussions went on for a long time.
Their car broke down on the way to the airport.
The pair broke up.
Prepositional Verb
 consists of a verb and one particle, which is also a
preposition, whose meaning might not have an explicit
literal implication
 idiomatic use
 The particle must come before the object.
e.g. Peter is looking after them. (look them after x)
I don't approve of your behaviour in this matter.
(approve your beahviour of x)
You must concentrate on your studies if you want a
good result.
What could be some common problems for most
Chinese students?
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What could be some sources of the problems?
Why?
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Structure of the Adjective Phrase
(pre-modifiers) head (post-modifiers)
e.g. very happy
happy
happy to see you
very happy to see you
(pre-modifier + head)
(head)
(head + post-modifier)
(pre-modifier+head + postmodifier)
Post-Modifiers of the Adjective Phrase
 can be prepositional phrases, to infinitive clauses or
that-clauses
e.g. happy to see you (infinitive)
happy that I can see you (a that-clause)
afraid to do it
afraid that it will kill me
afraid of dogs (preposition)
aware of the fact
Do Exercises 4.25 & 4.27
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Structure of the Adverb Phrase
How would you describe the possible structure of an
adverb phrase? Use some of the meta-language you
have learned so far.
e.g.
surprisingly
very surprisingly
surprisingly for her
very surprisingly indeed
(pre-modifiers) head (post-modifiers)
e.g. surprisingly
(head)
very surprisingly
(pre-modifier + head)
surprisingly for her
(head + post-modifier)
very surprisingly indeed (pre-modifier + head +
post-modifier)
 The pre-modifier needs to be another adverb
 The post-modifier can be a prepositional phrase or
another adverb
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Structure of the Prepositional Phrase
How would you describe the structure of a prepositional
phrase?
e.g.
through the window (through, through what?)
to them (to, to what?)
for the babies (for, for what?)
from what I heard
from where I live
after speaking to you
after listening to the story
head + complement

The prepositional complement is a noun phrase, wh
clause or -ing clause
through the window
to them
for the babies
from what I heard
from where I live
after speaking to you
after listening to the story
Head + a noun phrase
Head + a noun phrase
Head + a wh-clause
Head + an ~ing clause (i.e.,
a gerund + object of the
gerund)
e.g.
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Functions of the Prepositional Phrase
After learning about all different possible sentence
constituents, can you still name a few functions of a
prepositional phrase?

post-modifier of a noun
e.g. courses in history
books about China
work of John

post-modifier of an adjective
e.g. aware of his drinking problem
happy with the results
sorry for hearing this
afraid of dogs
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adverbial
e.g. In my opinion, people behave differently in crowds.
In the afternoon, I met Jon.
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