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THE LEGACY OF THE CRUSADES AND MUSLIM’S RELATIONS WITH THE DHIMMI Major Issues of Contention between Islam and the West • The Crusades • The Inquisition : Western Muslims greatly decreased after the completion of the Reconquista as non-Christians were forced to convert to Catholicism or leave the Iberian Peninsula during the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition of the 15th century. • European colonialism • Rise, expansion, and decline of the Ottoman Empire 11TH-13TH Century: the Crusades • 8 military expeditions • Christianity and Islam pitted against each other • Attempt by Roman Catholic Church and Papal Authority to reconsolidate power and control • Offensive to drive Muslims out of Spain, Italy Sicily, and the Mediterranean • West: began to emerge out of Dark Ages •Perceptions of Crusades The West: Triumph of Christianity Crusades fought to liberate Jerusalem Politically rather than religiously motivated Characteristic/reflective of Medieval Warfare Muslim Understanding: Clear example of militant Christianity Empirical example of Western aggression and imperialism Manifestation of Christian hostility and intolerance towards Islam Establishment of Islamic Hegemony • After Muhammad’s death in 632, military, cultural and religious hegemony was established on Arab peninsula, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Turkey and North Africa. • 8th and 9th centuries: Spain and Sicily and parts of France • By 13th and 14th century: India, Indonesia and parts of China had succumbed to Islamic rule. Mobilization of Crusaders 1. Pilgrimage 2. Holy War Pilgrimage was sign of Christian piety; promise of forgiveness of sins Christian concept of holy war bestowed crusades with a sense of righteousness, honor, and chivalry. To die a martyr meant access to heaven despite of sins. Human Target of Crusaders • Target were Muslims, local Christians, and Jews • Looting, killing, and violation of women was prominent • “Better the turban of a Turk than the tiara of the Pope.” Jerusalem: Holy City • 1099: Christians captured Jerusalem • 1193: Muslims mounted counteroffensive under Saladin reversal of ban that had prohibited Jews from settling in Jerusalem • 13th century: Crusades degenerated into intra-Christian wars Collapse of Arab dynasty • The Moguls captured Baghdad in 1258 and assassinated the last Abassid Caliph • Region was left without any central authority until the emergence of the Ottoman Empire to the North • The decline of the Arab dynasty prompted 3 new Muslim dynasties: The Ottomans, the Safavid and the Mughal Empires Significance of Holy Land • Muslims: Jerusalem is third most important holy site after Mecca and Medina Dome of the Rock Al-Aqsa Mosque Jerusalem continued • Jewish history is linked to sites in and around Jerusalem • King Solomon’s temple • Center of God’s promised land linked to ancient Hebrews and their descendants as chronicled in the Old Testament Jerusalem and Christians • Holy Land centered in and around Jerusalem witnessed life of Jesus • Nazareth, Bethlehem, Jerusalem are sacred because of belief that Jesus was born, died, and resurrected from the dead there Muslim’s and Dhimmi • People of the Book • Muslims used to face Jerusalem for prayer • Medina: first Islamic State here prophet reached out to Jewish tribes but was ultimately betrayed Central Pillars of the First Islamic State • The ummah • Granting of religious and cultural autonomy to non-Muslims; status of protected people • Medina’s constitution still heralded as evidence of Islam’s inherent message of religious pluralism Muslim-Jewish Relations • Alignment of Jews with Muhammad’s enemies in Mecca led to killing of Jews as traitors • Hamas and al-Queda’s outlook on Jews today • Jews found refuge in many Muslim areas under the Ottomans Muslim-Christian Relations Conflict and cooperation characterize this relationship. Rapid spread of Islam as religion challenged political power and hegemony of Christendom Many Christians persecuted by Catholic Christianity welcomed Muslim rule Major Issues of Contention between Islam and the West today • • • • The Crusades The Inquisition European Colonialism Rise, Expansion, and Decline of Ottoman Empire Religious and Philosophical Debates • Spain • Mughal Emperor Akbar The Ottoman Empire and the millet system • Religious community officially recognized by the Ottoman Empire 1.Greek Orthodox 2.Armenian Gregorian 3.Muslim 4.Jewish Non-Muslims in an Islamic State • Graduated Citizenship 1. conversion to Islam 2. Retention of personal faith a. Poll tax 3. if refusal of protected status, warfare is justifiable The contemporary Islamic State Two major groups: • Strict application of gradations of citizenship • Hierarchical approach to citizenship is incompatible with pluralistic realities of today and international human rights Islamic State: Application of Sharia Law • • • • • Muslim’s vocation was to follow/obey God’s will Knowing God’s will is prerequisite Central expression in Islamic Law=Sharia Law Law rather than theology was the dominant discipline for describing and living by faith God’s revelation and Mohammad’s prophetic example were used as starting points for Islamic law; Four Foundations of Islamic Law 1. The Koran—many times in the Koran it says “obey me 2. 3. 4. 5. and obey my prophet” Tradition (sunna) of Muhammad Ijma ( Consensus): today means consensus of qualified scholars (ulema) Qiyas (analogy): assumes that legal guidance in Koran and sunna can be applied to other cases Many outsiders consider Islamic law rather inflexible; yet the application of the four roots often makes it quite flexible in application Sharia Law • Sharia also known as path to God • Islamic state=Islamic society governed by • Islamic law became blueprint for good, just, and equal society; an Islamic ideal Sharia is perceived as a set of divinely revealed general principles, directives and values from which human beings developed more concrete laws, rules, and regulations which were developed and applied by Islamic judges (qadis) in Sharia courts Islamic law continued • Within a few centuries of Muhammad’s death, • • pious Muslims concerned with the unfettered powers of Muslim rules and the infiltration and uncritical adoptation of foreign practices, sought to preserve the true path of God and to limit the powers of the caliph Muslims codified Islamic Law Work of individual jurists (members of ulema) gave birth to different schools of law Different Schools of Jurisprudence: Sharia Law • Schools of law began to emerge in urban centers such as Medina, Mecca, Damascus, Baghdad, Kufa etc. • Though united in purpose and based upon the same sources, their conclusions embodied different geographic and cultural contexts as well as intellectual orientations. Closing the door of Ijtihad • Ijtihad=doors of interpretation • By the end of the 10th century, legal scholars felt that all major legal issues had been decided; they said that the door of interpretation (ijtihad) was closed and Muslims had to consult past decisions collected in the books of the various law Schools (taqlid)