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Evaluating Arguments
Premise
Conclusion
Ethos
Pathos
Logos
Inductive
Deductive
Valid
Sound
Propaganda
Arguments are constructed with 2 basic elements
1. Premises: The
evidence or reasons
provided to support a
logical conclusion
Premise
Premise
Premise
Premise
Conclusion
2. Conclusion: the
claim or truth that is
trying to be proven,
confirmed or verified.
***Premises are the
“pillars” used to lift
up or support the
desired conclusion***
Pool of evidence
The strength of an
argument is
dependent on the
strength of the
premises. If the
premises crumble, the
conclusion will fall.
Distinguishing between Premises and Conclusions
Conclusions: typically direct statements taking a
stance on an issue.
Premises: series of facts or reasoning that
logically supports and builds toward the
conclusion
Some Premise Indicator Words
Some Conclusion Indicator Words
Because Since Given that For
On the grounds that This follows from
Therefore Thus Hence So
Consequently This shows that
Argument Structure: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Moves from general premises to an absolute,
specific conclusion.
Provides numerous specific
observed facts to draw a probable
general conclusion
Major Premise (General)
If one smokes then they are endangering their
health.
Minor Premise
John is a smoker
Conclusion (Specific)
Therefore John is endangering his health
THIS CONCLUSION IS ABSOLUTE
Premises (Observed Pattern)
Three generations of the Smith family have
rushed for a sorority.
General Conclusion (Theory)
So we can assume that Mr. Smith’s daughter
will rush for a sorority as well.
THIS CONCLUSION IS VERY PROBABLE
Evaluating the Validity and Soundness of Arguments
A deductive argument is VALID if it has a structure that makes it impossible for the
conclusion to be false if the premises are true. Consider the syllogisms below:
If A then B
(major premise no proof needed)
Not B
(minor premise typically needs
proof)
.
The argument on the left has a
“valid” structure, whereas the
argument on the right has a
structure that is invalid.
Therefore Not A
(specific logical conclusion)
If one owns a Toyota 4Runner,
then they own a SUV.
Not A
(minor premise typically needs
proof)
Therefore Not A
(specific logical conclusion)
LEFT: Not owning an SUV
absolutely eliminates any
possibility of owning a 4Runner.
John does NOT own a SUV.
Therefore John does not own a
Toyota 4Runner.
If A then B
(major premise no proof needed)
If one owns a Toyota 4Runner,
then they own a SUV.
John does not own a 4Runner.
RIGHT: Not owning a 4Runner
does not eliminate the possibility
of owning some other type of SUV.
Therefore John does not own a
SUV.
Evaluating the Validity and
Soundness of Arguments
VALID structure
=
SOUNDNESS
A deductive argument is SOUND only if it has
both a VALID structure and the premises are true
and/or acceptable.
Therefore, to determine if an argument is
SOUND, one must both evaluate the.
validity of its structure and the truth and
acceptability of the supporting premises.
Evaluating the Validity and
Soundness of Arguments
How credible is the source of the claim?
-Does the source have real knowledge about
the issue in question? Relevant factors:
Education, expertise, accomplishments, and
reputation
-Is there reason to doubt the source’s
honesty, objectivity, or accuracy?
2 Key
Considerations
How credible is the claim itself?
-Does the claim conflict with your own
observations or commonly accepted
principles?
Evaluating the Validity and
Soundness of Arguments
EXAMPLE:
(Major Premise)
If one is a smoker, then
they are endangering
their health.
(Minor Premise)
John is a smoker.
(Conclusion)
Therefore John is
endangering his health
In order for the argument to be
sound, both the major and minor
premise need to be classified true.
(Major Premise) This would be
generally accepted as true, because of
the data from numerous medical
studies.
(Minor Premise) This would need
observed data such as, eye witnesses,
financial statements of buying
cigarettes, the smell of cigarettes on
breath/clothing, stains on teeth, etc…
(Conclusion) if the preceding
premises are verified as true, the
conclusion of the argument would be
determined sound.
Evaluating the Validity and
Soundness of Arguments
PREMISES BASED ON OPINION:
Opinions or value judgements cannot be
proven or disproven. These can still
should be evaluated as reasonable or
unreasonable according to their relative
strengths or weaknesses.
Rhetorical Appeals
Ethos:
An appeal to
character or
credibility. Either
speaker's
personal ethics
and expertise or
utilizing an
external expert/
professional.
Pathos:
An appeal to
emotion.
Typically creating
sympathy and
empathy for a
cause or negative
emotions towards
the opposition.
Top Writing Academy™ © 2015
Logos:
An appeal to
logic. Organizing
facts and
evidence to build
toward a logical
conclusion.
Possibly Inductive
or Deductive.
Employing Rhetorical Appeals
In persuasion, rhetorical appeals are like a Christmas Tree.
LOGOS: The branches that support
your claim. Your logic needs to be
strong to hold up your argument.
Faulty reasoning will bend and break.
PATHOS: The ornaments that attract
the most attention. People are
emotional and make many decisions
based on what is attractive and
emotionally appealing.
EVIDENCE: Must be reliable, sufficient
and related to your claim to appeal to the
audience.
CONNOTATION: Use strong diction,
imagery, and figurative language to
develop mood/tone.
INDUCTIVE: Provides numerous
observed specifics to draw a probable
conclusion.
HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION: Put the
reader into the situation to create
empathy/sympathy.
DEDUCTIVE: Moves from general
premises to form a specific, absolute
conclusion
ANECDOTES: Tell personal or general
anecdotes to draw in the audience.
ETHOS: The foundation or trunk that holds everything together. Without
the trust and respect of your audience, your argument will fall to pieces.
TONE: Set a tone that connects with the personality and values of your
audience
EXPERTISE: Refer to your own background or credentials or refer to credible,
reliable experts in the field for evidence.
Top Writing Academy™ © 2015
Argument
"As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of
treatment will likely generate the best results."
"The data is perfectly clear: this investment has
consistently turned a profit year-over-year, even in spite
of market declines in other areas."
"A qualified veterinarian says that an Australian
shepherd will be the perfect match for our active
lifestyle."
"There’s no price that can be placed on peace of mind.
Our advanced security systems will protect the wellbeing of your family so that you can sleep soundly at
night."
"If his years as a Marine taught him anything, it’s that
caution is the best policy in this sort of situation."
Top Writing Academy™ © 2015
Primary
Appeal
Argument
Primary
Appeal
"As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of
treatment will likely generate the best results."
Ethos
"The data is perfectly clear: this investment has
consistently turned a profit year-over-year, even in spite
of market declines in other areas."
"A qualified veterinarian says that an Australian
shepherd will be the perfect match for our active
lifestyle."
"There’s no price that can be placed on peace of mind.
Our advanced security systems will protect the wellbeing of your family so that you can sleep soundly at
night."
Logos
"If his years as a Marine taught him anything, it’s that
caution is the best policy in this sort of situation."
Top Writing Academy™ © 2015
Ethos
Pathos
Ethos
Argument
"They’ve worked against everything we’ve worked so
hard to build, and they don’t care who gets hurt in the
process. Make no mistake, they’re the enemy, and they
won’t stop until we’re all destroyed."
"It’s a matter of common sense that people deserve to
be treated equally. The Constitution calls it ‘self-evident.’
Why, then, should I have been denied a seat because of
my race?"
"More than one hundred peer-reviewed studies have
been conducted over the past decade, and none of them
suggests that this is an effective treatment for hair loss."
"Don’t be the last person on the block to have their lawn
treated – you don’t want to be the laughing stock of your
community!"
Top Writing Academy™ © 2015
Primary
Appeal
Argument
"They’ve worked against everything we’ve worked so
hard to build, and they don’t care who gets hurt in the
process. Make no mistake, they’re the enemy, and they
won’t stop until we’re all destroyed."
Primary
Appeal
Pathos
"It’s a matter of common sense that people deserve to
be treated equally. The Constitution calls it ‘self-evident.’
Why, then, should I have been denied a seat because of
my race?"
Logos
"More than one hundred peer-reviewed studies have
been conducted over the past decade, and none of them
suggests that this is an effective treatment for hair loss."
Logos
"Don’t be the last person on the block to have their lawn
treated – you don’t want to be the laughing stock of your
community!"
Pathos
Top Writing Academy™ © 2015
Argument
"Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not
only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of
qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied
customers who have come to expect nothing but the
best."
"Better men than us have fought and died to preserve
this great nation. Now is our turn to return the favor. Do
not be afraid, but push forward for God and country,
gentlemen!"
Top Writing Academy™ © 2015
Primary
Appeal
Argument
"Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not
only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of
qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied
customers who have come to expect nothing but the
best."
"Better men than us have fought and died to preserve
this great nation. Now is our turn to return the favor. Do
not be afraid, but push forward for God and country,
gentlemen!"
Top Writing Academy™ © 2015
Primary
Appeal
Ethos
Pathos
Argument
Persuasion
Propaganda
Remains
objective, using
facts and
evidence to
prove or reveal a
truth.
Both subjective
and objective,
combining facts
and evidence
with emotional
appeals to
influence the
audience to
embrace their
opinion.
Completely
subjective and
biased, often
distorting
evidence or
manipulating
emotions to
influence the
audience.
Argument
Characteristics
Propaganda
Characteristics
Based on factual proven
facts and premises
versus
Based on distorted facts
or made up evidence
Uses objective credible
sources for evidence
versus
Uses extremely biased
sources for evidence
Evidence is thorough and
sufficient
versus
Evidence is taken out of
context and incomplete
Based on rational, logical
thought
versus
Mimics logic and twists
rational thought
Uses a objective and
non-emotional tone
versus
Emotional tone that
exploits
insecurities/desires
Uses direct and clear
language
versus
Capitalizes on the
ambiguities of language
Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise
Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument,
Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content.
THESIS: West Ranch High School is the highest academic
performing school in the Hart District revealed by the
CAHSEE results, SAT scores, and GPA.
_________________________
THESIS: One Direction is a better band than the Beatles
because they are cuter, better dancers, and started at a
younger age. _________________________
THESIS: Alex Rodriguez is guilty of using steroids proven by
doctor's records, professional testimonies, and forensic
evidence. _________________________
Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise
Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument,
Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content.
THESIS: West Ranch High School is the highest academic
performing school in the Hart District revealed by the
CAHSEE results, SAT scores, and GPA. ARGUMENT
THESIS: One Direction is a better band than the Beatles
because they are cuter, better dancers, and started at a
younger age. PERSUASION
THESIS: Alex Rodriguez is guilty of using steroids proven by
doctor's records, professional testimonies, and forensic
evidence. ARGUMENT
Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise
Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument,
Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content.
THESIS: People should vote Democrat because Republicans
are elitist, power mongers, and thieves. ___________
THESIS: Alex Rodriguez should never be allowed to play
Major League Baseball again because he broke league rules,
lied to the public, and ignored the ethics of the sport.
_________________________
THESIS: Justin Bieber should be kicked out of America
because he is an ignorant, grade school dropout and wanna
be poser. _________________________
Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise
Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument,
Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content.
THESIS: People should vote Democrat because Republicans
are elitist, power mongers, and thieves.
PROPAGANDA
THESIS: Alex Rodriguez should never be allowed to play
Major League Baseball again because he broke league rules,
lied to the public, and ignored the ethics of the sport.
ARGUMENT
THESIS: Justin Beiber should be kicked out of America
because he is an ignorant, grade school dropout and wanna
be poser. PROPAGANDA
Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise
Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument,
Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content.
THESIS: Stop global warming and make a safe world, a
bright future, and hope for the next generation.
_________________________
THESIS: The defendant is guilty of murder shown by
evidence from the crime scene, eye witnesses, and the
murder weapon found in the home of the accused.
_________________________
Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise
Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument,
Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content.
THESIS: Stop global warming and make a safe world, a
bright future, and hope for the next generation.
PROPAGANDA
THESIS: The defendant is guilty of murder shown by
evidence from the crime scene, eye witnesses, and the
murder weapon found in the home of the accused.
ARGUMENT
Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise
Common Propaganda Techniques
Critical Analysis Questions
Name Calling “Ad Hominem”: The
name-calling technique links a person,
or idea, to a negative symbol. The
propagandist who uses this technique
hopes that the audience will reject the
person or the idea on the basis of the
negative symbol, instead of looking at
the available evidence. Ad hominem is
when there is an attack on the merits
of the individual instead of the merits
of the argument.
What does the name mean?
Does the idea in question have a legitimate
connection with the real meaning of the name?
Is an idea that serves my best interests being
dismissed through giving it a name I don't like?
Leaving the name out of consideration, what are the
merits of the idea itself?
Example: Tony wants us to believe that
the origin of life was an
“accident”. Tony is a godless hypocrite
who has spent more time in jail than in
church, so the only information we
should consider from him is the best
way to make license plates
Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in
this argument.
Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise
Common Propaganda Techniques
Critical Analysis Questions
Glittering Generality: The Glittering
Generality is, in short, Name Calling in
reverse. While Name Calling seeks to
make us form a judgment to reject and
condemn without examining the
evidence, the Glittering Generality
device seeks to make us approve and
accept without examining the
evidence.
What does the virtue word really mean?
Does the idea in question have a legitimate
connection with the real meaning of the word:
Is an idea that does not serve my best interests
being "sold" to me merely through its being given a
name that I like?
Leaving the virtue word out of consideration, what
are the merits of the idea itself?
Example: I stand for freedom: for
a strong nation, unrivaled in the
world. My opponent believes we must
compromise on these ideals, but I
believe they are our birthright
Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in
this argument.
Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise
Common Propaganda Techniques
Critical Analysis Questions
Transfer: Transfer is a device by which
the propagandist carries over the
authority, sanction, and prestige of
something we respect and revere to
something he would have us accept.
In the most simple and concrete terms, what is the
proposal of the speaker?
What is the meaning of the thing from which the
propagandist is seeking to transfer authority,
sanction, and prestige?
Is there any legitimate connection between the
proposal of the propagandist and the revered thing,
person or institution?
Leaving the propagandistic trick out of the picture,
what are the merits of the proposal viewed alone?
Example: As I stand in front of this flag,
next to this incredible statue of our
great president Abraham Lincoln, I
think of the greatness of this country
and how I as president will serve to
keep it great.
Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in
this argument.
Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise
Common Propaganda Techniques
Critical Analysis Questions
Testimonial: The most common misuse
of the testimonial involves citing
individuals who are not qualified to
make judgments about a particular
issue.
Who or what is quoted in the testimonial?
Why should we regard this person (or organization
or publication) as having expert knowledge or
trustworthy information on the subject in question?
What does the idea amount to on its own merits,
without the benefit of the Testimonial?
Example: In my last movie, I saved my
family from terrorists and I'm
supporting this party because
they will save you from terrorists!
Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in
this argument.
Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise
Common Propaganda Techniques
Critical Analysis Questions
Plain-folk: By using the plain-folks
technique, speakers attempt to
convince their audience that they, and
their ideas, are "of the people." The
device is used by advertisers and
politicians alike.
What are the propagandist's ideas worth when
divorced from his or her personality?
What could he or she be trying to cover up with the
plain-folks approach?
What are the facts?
Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in
Example: An ordinary looking family sits this argument.
together at a table to eat a certain
brand of macaroni.
Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise
Common Propaganda Techniques
Critical Analysis Questions
Bandwagon: The basic theme of the
Band Wagon appeal is that "everyone
else is doing it, and so should you."
Since few of us want to be left behind,
this technique can be quite successful.
What is this propagandist's program?
What is the evidence for and against the program?
Regardless of the fact that others are supporting
this program, should I support it?
Does the program serve or undermine my individual
and collective interests?
Example: ATT is the largest growing
cell phone network in America. Don’t
be the last one to take advantage of
this incredible offer.
Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in
this argument.
Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise
Common Propaganda Techniques
Critical Analysis Questions
Appeal to Tradition: When one
appeals to a sense of custom, belief or
loyalty. Phrases like “it’s always been
done this way” or “don’t change it if it
isn’t broken” are often used in this
technique. Tradition assumes that
something is better or correct simply
because it is older or a tradition.
What is the issue under discussion?
How have the circumstances changed?
What are the real needs in this situation?
What are the biases of the tradition referred to?
Example: Our school has been using
this testing system for years, so there is
no reason to tweak something that has
been working for so long.
Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in
this argument.
Propaganda Techniques: Component Fallacies
(Inductive and Deductive Fallacies)
Component Fallacies
Begging the Question/Circular
Reasoning: When one uses their own
conclusion as evidence for to prove
that very conclusion.
Examples
Freedom of speech is important because people
should be able to speak freely.
The death penalty is wrong because killing people is
immoral.
Ghosts are real because I have had experiences with
them myself.
Hasty Generalization: Misuse of
inductive reasoning when there is
insufficient evidence, but the speaker
rushes to the desired conclusion
regardless of the small sample size of
evidence.
"Susan failed Biology 101. Herman failed Biology
101. Egbert failed Biology 101. I therefore conclude
that the teacher is too hard and isn’t a strong
instructor. (Maybe Susan, Herman, and Egbert are
exceptionally poor students. Maybe they were sick
and missed too many lectures that term to pass.)
Propaganda Techniques: Component Fallacies
(Inductive and Deductive Fallacies)
Component Fallacies
Examples
False Cause: This fallacy establishes a
cause/effect relationship that does not
exist. There are various Latin names for
various analyses of the fallacy.
The Republicans pass a new tax reform law that
benefits wealthy Americans. Shortly thereafter the
economy takes a nose dive. The Democrats claim
that the tax reform caused the economic woes and
they push to get rid of it. (Their could have been
several causes for this dive in the economy, and
blaming it on one cause is bias)
Irrelevant Conclusion/Non Sequitur:
any argument that does not follow
from the previous statements. Usually
what happened is that the writer
leaped from A to B and then jumped to
D, leaving out step C.
"Giving up our nuclear arsenal in the 1980's
weakened the United States' military. Giving up
nuclear weaponry also weakened China in the
1990s. For this reason, it is wrong to try to outlaw
pistols and rifles in the United States today." (The
connection between nuclear weapons and small fire
arms is weak at best.)
Propaganda Techniques: Component Fallacies
(Inductive and Deductive Fallacies)
Component Fallacies
Examples
False Dilemma: This fallacy occurs
when a writer builds an argument
upon the assumption that there are
only two choices or possible outcomes
when actually there are several.
Outcomes are seldom so simple. This
fallacy most frequently appears in
connection to sweeping
generalizations
Either we must go to war with country X or the
American way of life will never be the same.
(No middle ground or room for negotiations makes
this a manipulative and shortsighted conclusion)
Logical Paradox: Establishing a premise
in such a way that it contradicts
another, earlier premise.
If there is one winning ticket in a large lottery, it is
reasonable to believe of any particular lottery ticket
that it is not the winning ticket, but it is not
reasonable to believe that no lottery ticket will win.
Faulty Analogy: Relying only on
comparisons to prove a point rather
than arguing deductively and
inductively.
“education is like cake; a small amount tastes
sweet, but eat too much and your teeth will rot out.
Likewise, more than two years of education is bad
for a student.” The analogy is only acceptable to the
degree a reader thinks that education is similar to
cake.